OurBigBook Wikipedia Bot
Documentation
Spectroscopy is a scientific technique used to study the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter. It involves measuring the light spectrum emitted, absorbed, or scattered by materials in order to obtain information about their composition, structure, and physical properties. The basic principle of spectroscopy is that different substances interact with light in unique ways, producing distinct patterns or spectra that serve as "fingerprints" for identification and analysis.
Chromism refers to the ability of a substance to change color in response to changes in certain external conditions, such as temperature, light, or chemical environment. There are several types of chromism, including: 1. **Thermochromism** - Change of color with temperature. Substances exhibit different colors at different temperatures due to changes in molecular structure or interactions. 2. **Photochromism** - Change of color when exposed to light.
Complexometric indicators are specialized chemical indicators used in titrations involving complexometric agents, typically in the analysis of metal ions. These indicators change color in response to the formation of complexes between the metal ions and a chelating agent, which is commonly ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). In complexometric titrations, the metal ion in solution reacts with the chelating agent, forming a stable complex.
pH indicators are substances that change color or exhibit different properties in response to changes in pH, which is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. They are commonly used in various applications, such as titrations in chemistry, soil testing in agriculture, and monitoring of pH in swimming pools and aquaculture.
Electrochromism refers to the reversible change in color of a material when an electrical voltage is applied. This phenomenon is typically observed in certain organic and inorganic materials, which can alter their optical properties in response to an applied electric field. Electrochromic materials can switch between different colors or levels of transparency during oxidation or reduction processes. This change in color or transparency is due to modifications in the electronic structure of the material, which affects how it absorbs and reflects light.
Gasochromism is a phenomenon where the color of a material changes in response to the presence of certain gases. This change can occur due to various chemical reactions or physical interactions between the gas and the material, often at the molecular level. Gasochromic materials can be used in various applications, including gas sensing, environmental monitoring, and as indicators in safety systems.
Halochromism is a property of certain substances, particularly dyes and indicators, that allows them to change color in response to changes in pH or other chemical environments. This phenomenon is often observed in compounds that can exist in different ionic states depending on the acidity or basicity of their surrounding environment. In practical terms, a halochromic substance might appear one color in acidic conditions and a different color in neutral or alkaline conditions.
Hexaarylbiimidazole is a compound known for its unique structure, which includes two imidazole rings interconnected by aryl groups. These types of compounds are of interest in various fields including materials science, organic electronics, and catalysis due to their interesting electronic properties and potential applications. The term "hexaaryl" suggests that there are six aryl (aromatic) substituents attached to the biimidazole structure.
Ionochromism is a phenomenon where the color of a substance changes in response to the presence or concentration of ions. This change can be due to interactions between the substance and the ions, often involving a change in the electronic structure or the molecular environment of the chromophore (the part of the molecule responsible for its color). Ionochromism is typically observed in certain organic compounds, dyes, or materials that can undergo structural changes or complexation when ions are introduced.
Magnetochromism is a phenomenon where the color of a material changes in response to the application of a magnetic field. This effect is due to the interaction of the magnetic field with the electronic or optical properties of a material, which can influence its absorption, transmission, or emission of light. Magnetochromism can be observed in various materials, including certain types of organic compounds, transition metal complexes, or nanostructures.
Mechanochromism refers to a phenomenon where a material changes color in response to mechanical stress or deformation. This color change can be triggered by various forms of mechanical action, such as stretching, compressing, bending, or grinding. Mechanochromic materials can be found in various applications, including sensors, smart materials, and coatings. The color change is typically due to alterations in molecular structure, alignment, or interactions that affect how light is absorbed and reflected by the material.
Photochromic lenses are lenses that automatically adjust their tint in response to changing light conditions. They are made with special molecules that react to ultraviolet (UV) light, which causes the lenses to darken when exposed to sunlight and then return to a clear state when the UV exposure decreases, such as when indoors. Key features and benefits of photochromic lenses include: 1. **UV Protection**: They provide protection against harmful UV rays, which can contribute to eye damage and certain eye diseases.
Photochromism is the phenomenon in which a chemical compound reversibly changes its color when exposed to light, typically ultraviolet (UV) radiation or visible light. This change in color is due to a structural transformation in the molecules of the compound, often involving a shift between two different forms (isomers) that have distinct light-absorbing properties.
Piezochromism is a phenomenon in which the color of a material changes in response to applied mechanical stress or pressure. This effect is often observed in certain organic compounds, inorganic materials, and polymers. The color change can result from alterations in the molecular structure, electronic states, or the arrangement of the materials under stress. The mechanisms behind piezochromism can vary.
Rhodium(III) oxide, also known as rhodium trioxide, is an inorganic compound composed of rhodium and oxygen. Its chemical formula is typically denoted as Rh2O3, indicating that it is a stoichiometric compound containing two rhodium atoms for every three oxygen atoms. ### Properties: - **Appearance**: Rhodium(III) oxide is usually found as a dark gray to black solid.
"Scotophor" is a term that is not widely recognized in common scientific literature, but it appears to be a combination of "scoto-" (derived from the Greek "skotos" meaning darkness) and "phor," which is typically associated with carrying or bearing something.
Solarization in physics, particularly in the context of optical materials and solar energy, refers to the phenomenon where certain materials change their optical properties when exposed to intense light or radiation over time. This can occur due to various processes, including the formation of color centers or defects in the material's structure that absorb light at specific wavelengths, leading to a change in color or transparency.
Solvatochromism is a phenomenon where the color of a substance changes in response to different solvent environments. This effect is typically observed in certain molecules, especially those that have electronic transitions sensitive to the polarity or dielectric properties of the solvent. In solvatochromic compounds, the wavelength of absorption or emission shifts depending on the solvent's properties, which can include polarity, hydrogen bonding capability, and the presence of specific functional groups.
Thermochromism is the phenomenon in which a material changes color in response to changes in temperature. This color change occurs due to alterations in the physical or chemical properties of the material, often involving phase transitions, changes in molecular structure, or modifications in electronic configurations.
Tribochromism is a phenomenon where a material changes color in response to mechanical stress or friction. This can occur due to various mechanisms, such as changes in molecular structure, the alignment of chromophoric groups, or alterations in the electronic properties of the material when it is subjected to pressure or movement.
Diffraction is a phenomenon that occurs when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit that is comparable in size to its wavelength. It results in the bending and spreading of waves as they pass around the edges of the obstacle or through the slit. This behavior is observed with various types of waves, including sound waves, light waves, and water waves.
Diffraction gratings are optical devices used to separate light into its constituent wavelengths or colors. They consist of a surface that has a large number of closely spaced lines or grooves, which can be either reflective or transmissive. When light encounters the grating, it interacts with these structures, leading to constructive and destructive interference effects based on the wavelength of the light.
Small-angle scattering (SAS) is a powerful experimental technique used to study the structure of materials at the nanoscale. It is commonly applied in fields such as chemistry, biology, materials science, and condensed matter physics. The technique involves the scattering of X-rays, neutrons, or light (e.g., using small-angle X-ray scattering, or SAXS; small-angle neutron scattering, or SANS; and small-angle light scattering, or SALS) off of a sample.
X-ray scattering is a powerful analytical technique used to study the structural properties of materials at the atomic or molecular level. This method involves directing X-rays at a sample and analyzing the way these rays scatter off the material. The scattering of X-rays can provide valuable information about the arrangement of atoms, molecular structures, phase transitions, and other properties of the sample.
Addressed Fiber Bragg Structures refer to a type of optical fiber device that incorporates Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs). A Fiber Bragg Grating is a periodic variation in the refractive index of optical fiber, which reflects specific wavelengths of light while transmitting others. These structures are widely used for various applications, including sensing, telecommunications, and signal processing.
The Airy disk is a pattern of light observed when a point source of light, such as a distant star, is imaged through a circular aperture, such as a lens or an optical telescope. It occurs due to the diffraction of light, which causes waves to spread out when passing through the aperture. The Airy disk is characterized by a central bright spot, known as the Airy central maximum, surrounded by a series of concentric dark and bright rings.
The Arago spot, also known as the Poinsot spot, is a phenomenon observed in the diffraction pattern of light when it passes through a circular aperture or around a circular obstacle. It is named after the French physicist François Arago, who studied this effect in the early 19th century. When light waves encounter a circular obstacle, they bend around it and create a diffraction pattern.
Atmospheric diffraction is the bending of light waves as they pass through different layers of the atmosphere with varying temperatures and densities. This phenomenon occurs due to the interaction of light with atmospheric particles and the varying refractive index of air caused by changes in temperature, pressure, and humidity. When light waves encounter obstacles or pass through apertures, they can bend around the edges, leading to effects such as the spreading of light and the formation of patterns.
Babinet's principle is a concept in wave optics that relates to the diffraction of waves, particularly light, when they encounter an obstacle or aperture. It states that the diffraction pattern created by a particular aperture is identical to the diffraction pattern produced by an obstacle of the same shape and size but with its area blocked instead of open.
Bragg's law is a fundamental principle in the field of crystallography and X-ray diffraction. It relates the angles at which X-rays are diffracted by a crystalline material to the spacing between its atomic planes. The law is named after William Lawrence Bragg and his father, William Henry Bragg, who formulated it in 1913.
Coherent Diffraction Imaging (CDI) is a powerful imaging technique used primarily in the fields of materials science, biology, and nanotechnology. It allows researchers to obtain high-resolution images of the internal structures of samples without the need for lenses, which can often introduce aberrations or restrict resolution.
Convergent Beam Electron Diffraction (CBED) is a technique used in electron microscopy, particularly in the field of crystallography and materials science, to study the crystallographic structure of materials at the atomic level. It is an extension of conventional electron diffraction methods and allows for the collection of detailed information about the symmetry and electronic structure of crystals. In CBED, a focused beam of electrons is converged onto the sample, typically using a high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM).
Dark-field X-ray microscopy is an advanced imaging technique that exploits X-ray scattering to visualize small structures or features in samples, particularly biological specimens and materials at the nanoscale. This method is distinct from traditional X-ray imaging, which typically relies on transmitted X-rays to create images. ### Key Features of Dark-field X-ray Microscopy: 1. **Scattering Detection**: In dark-field configurations, the microscope is designed to detect scattered X-rays rather than those that pass straight through the sample.
A diffraction-limited system refers to an optical system that is limited in resolution by the diffraction of light rather than by other factors such as optical aberrations or imperfections in the optical components. In such systems, the smallest details that can be resolved are determined by the wavelength of light being used and the numerical aperture of the optical system.
Diffraction efficiency refers to the effectiveness with which a diffraction grating or similar optical component disperses incoming light into its various diffraction orders. It is typically defined as the ratio of the power of the desired diffracted beam to the power of the incident beam, usually expressed as a percentage.
Diffraction refers to the bending and spreading of waves when they encounter an obstacle or an aperture that is comparable in size to the wavelength of the waves. When discussing diffraction from slits, we typically refer to the phenomenon that occurs when light (or other waves) passes through one or more narrow slits. ### Key Concepts: 1. **Single-Slit Diffraction**: - When light passes through a single narrow slit, it spreads out rather than traveling in straight lines.
A diffraction grating is an optical component with a periodic structure that diffracts light into several beams. The grating consists of multiple closely spaced slits or grooves, which can be either reflective or transmissive. When light waves encounter the grating, they are scattered at specific angles according to the principles of wave interference, producing a spectrum of colors.
Diffraction in time typically refers to the phenomenon where waves spread out and bend around obstacles or through openings, but instead of focusing on spatial dimensions, it considers how these waves behave over time.
A diffraction spike is an optical phenomenon commonly observed in photographs of bright light sources, especially stars, taken with telescopes or camera lenses that utilize a diaphragm with sharp edges. When light from these sources enters the lens system, it is diffractedâmeaning it bends around the edges of the aperture (the opening through which light passes). The result of this diffraction can create streaks or spikes radiating outward from the bright light source in the image.
A diffractive beam splitter is an optical device that uses diffraction principles to split an incoming beam of light into multiple output beams. Unlike traditional beam splitters, which typically rely on reflection and transmission through a partially reflective surface, diffractive beam splitters use specially designed micro-patterns etched or printed on a surface to manipulate the phase front of the incoming light wave.
An Echelle grating is a type of diffraction grating used in spectroscopy to disperse light into its component wavelengths. It is characterized by having a large number of closely spaced grooves (or lines) that are typically arranged at an angle to maximize the diffraction efficiency. The key features of an Echelle grating include: 1. **High Dispersion**: Echelle gratings are designed to produce a high degree of angular dispersion due to their shallow groove angle and high groove density.
Electron diffraction is a technique used to study the structural properties of materials at the atomic or molecular level by utilizing the wave-like behavior of electrons. When a beam of electrons interacts with a material, it can be scattered by the atoms in the material, producing a diffraction pattern. This phenomenon is based on the principles of wave-particle duality, which describes how particles like electrons can exhibit properties of both particles and waves.
Energy-dispersive X-ray diffraction (EDXD) is a technique that combines aspects of both X-ray diffraction (XRD) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). It is primarily used to analyze the structural properties of materials at the atomic or molecular level. The method involves measuring the intensity of X-rays diffracted by a material as a function of their energy, providing information on both the crystalline structure and elemental composition of the sample.
Ewald's sphere is a geometric construct used in crystallography to visualize the relationship between the reciprocal lattice of a crystal and the diffraction of X-rays, neutrons, or electrons. It helps in understanding the conditions under which a crystal will diffract incident radiation and plays a crucial role in the interpretation of scattering experiments.
Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) is a specific type of optical device that is used primarily in fiber optic communication and sensing applications. An FBG consists of a periodic variation in the refractive index of the optical fiber core, which is created through various techniques such as exposure to UV light. This periodic change in refractive index acts as a wavelength-selective reflector.
The Flack parameter, often denoted as \( f \), is a term used in crystallography to describe the absolute configuration of a chiral molecule. It is particularly relevant when analyzing the results of X-ray crystallography experiments, where the precise arrangement of atoms in a crystal is determined. The Flack parameter provides information about the enantiomeric composition of the crystal structure.
Fraunhofer diffraction refers to a type of diffraction pattern produced when light waves pass through a slit or around an obstacle and are observed at a considerable distance from the aperture or obstacle, where the incoming and outgoing waves can be treated as parallel. This condition is typically satisfied when the source of light and the observation screen are placed at infinity or sufficiently far away compared to the size of the aperture.
Fraunhofer diffraction describes the diffraction patterns observed when light passes through a small aperture or around an obstacle, and it is analyzed at a far distance from the aperture or object. Under these conditions, the incoming wavefront can be approximated as planar waves. The mathematical formulation of the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern can be expressed in terms of the Fourier transform of the aperture function.
The Fraunhofer distance is a concept used in optics, particularly in the study of wave propagation and diffraction patterns. It refers to the distance from a wave source at which the wavefronts can be considered parallel, and thus the far-field approximation can be applied. This approximation simplifies the mathematical treatment of the wave behavior, especially when analyzing diffraction patterns.
Fresnel diffraction is a type of wave diffraction that occurs when a wavefront encounters an obstacle or aperture with dimensions comparable to its wavelength. It is named after the French engineer and physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel, who developed the theory to better understand the behavior of light.
The Fresnel number is a dimensionless quantity used in optics to characterize the diffraction of light through an aperture or around obstacles. It is named after the French engineer and physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel, who made significant contributions to the understanding of wave optics.
A Fresnel zone is a concept used in wave propagation, particularly in the context of radio, microwave, and optical communications. It is related to the diffraction of waves as they travel through space and helps in understanding how obstacles can affect signal strength and clarity. In a more formal sense, the Fresnel zone is defined as a series of concentric ellipsoidal regions surrounding the straight line path between a transmitter and a receiver.
Gas electron diffraction (GED) is a technique used to study the molecular structure of gas-phase samples by examining the scattering of electrons as they pass through a gas. It can be particularly useful for obtaining information about small molecules, radicals, and other transient species that may not have a stable crystalline form or that would be difficult to study using traditional X-ray crystallography.
A Greninger chart, also known as a Greninger diagram, is a type of graphical representation used primarily in the fields of engineering and project management. It helps in visualizing the relationship between different elements of a project, such as tasks, resources, and timelines. The chart typically focuses on the allocation of resources over time, allowing for better understanding and management of project dynamics.
A grism is an optical component used in spectroscopes and other imaging devices to disperse light into its constituent wavelengths. It combines the functions of a grating and a prism: it consists of a transparent optical element, typically made of glass, that has a diffraction grating etched onto one of its surfaces. The grism operates by diffracting light into different wavelengths, allowing for spectroscopic analysis.
The Hybrid Input-Output (HIO) algorithm is a computational approach often used in the context of optimization problems, particularly in the field of signal processing, image reconstruction, and iterative algorithms for phase retrieval. While the term "Hybrid Input-Output" may be used in various contexts, it is frequently associated with methods that combine different iterative techniques (input-output algorithms) to achieve improved convergence properties or performance in solving specific problems.
InXitu is a company that specializes in the development of advanced analytical instruments for the aerospace and defense industries, as well as for other scientific applications. The company focuses on providing real-time data solutions through innovative technology, particularly in the area of materials analysis and characterization. InXitu's instruments are designed for use in diverse environments, including on-site analyses, to support decision-making processes in critical applications.
The International Centre for Diffraction Data (ICDD) is a non-profit organization that serves the scientific community by providing a comprehensive database of diffraction data for crystalline materials. Founded in 1978, the ICDD focuses on the collection, organization, and dissemination of data related to X-ray, neutron, and electron diffraction. The ICDD is best known for its Powder Diffraction File (PDF), which is a critical resource for researchers in materials science, chemistry, mineralogy, and other fields.
The KapitsaâDirac effect is a quantum phenomenon that occurs when a beam of particles, such as electrons, interacts with a periodic potential in a way that results in the diffraction of the particles into discrete energy states. This effect was first predicted by physicists Peter Kapitsa and Paul Dirac in the 1930s.
Kikuchi lines are a phenomenon observed in electron diffraction patterns, particularly in materials science and crystallography when analyzing the structures of crystalline materials using techniques such as electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) or transmission electron microscopy (TEM). They appear as bands or lines in the diffraction pattern and are an important feature for understanding the crystalline structure and orientation of the material being studied. These lines result from the inelastic scattering of electrons and the interaction of the electron beam with the periodic lattice structure of the crystal.
Kinematic diffraction is a concept in the field of X-ray diffraction and crystallography that describes the way X-rays scatter off a crystalline material. It is based on kinematic theory, which simplifies the treatment of diffraction by considering the contributions of each atom in the crystal independently, without accounting for multiple scattering events. In kinematic diffraction, the following key points apply: 1. **Single Scattering**: It assumes that each X-ray photon interacts with one atom and is scattered only once.
Kirchhoff's diffraction formula is a foundational concept in the field of wave optics, specifically addressing the behavior of waves as they propagate from a source and encounter obstacles. Established by the physicist Gustav Kirchhoff in the 19th century, the formula provides a mathematical framework for predicting how light waves will diffract around edges and through apertures.
The Kirchhoff integral theorem is a fundamental result in mathematical physics, particularly in the field of wave propagation and acoustics. It provides a way to express the values of a wave field (such as sound or electromagnetic waves) in terms of its values over a surface enclosing a volume. The theorem is particularly useful for solving problems involving wave equations.
A Laser Voltage Prober (LVP) is a specialized piece of equipment used in the field of semiconductor testing and characterization. It combines the principles of laser technology with electrical measurement techniques to provide high-precision voltage measurements on integrated circuits (ICs) and other electronic components. Here's how it generally works: 1. **Laser Technology**: The LVP uses a focused laser beam to illuminate specific areas of a semiconductor device.
Long-period fiber gratings (LPFGs) are specialized types of optical fiber devices that are used to selectively couple light between the guided modes of the fiber and radiative modes or cladding modes. These gratings are created by periodically refracting the core refractive index of optical fibers, typically through techniques like ultraviolet (UV) light exposure or by using electric field poling.
Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a surface analysis technique used primarily to determine the surface structure of crystalline materials. In this method, low-energy electrons, typically in the range of 1 to 200 eV, are directed at the surface of a crystalline sample.
Momentum transfer refers to the process by which momentum is exchanged between two or more systems, typically involving interactions between particles or bodies. This exchange can occur in various physical contexts, such as collisions, fluid dynamics, and particle physics. In a collision between two objects, for example, momentum transfer occurs as the moving object exerts a force on the stationary object, resulting in a change in their velocities.
A multifocal diffractive lens is an optical device designed to provide multiple focal points, allowing it to focus light at different distances. This type of lens is mainly used in applications like eyeglasses, contact lenses, and intraocular lenses for cataract surgery. Hereâs how it works: 1. **Diffractive Optics**: The lens incorporates microstructures on its surface that manipulate the light through diffraction.
Multipole density formalism is a theoretical framework used to describe the electronic distribution within molecules and materials by expanding the electron density in terms of multipole moments. This approach is particularly useful in quantum chemistry and condensed matter physics to analyze and visualize electronic structures. ### Key Features of Multipole Density Formalism: 1. **Electron Density Expansion**: The electron density \(\rho(\mathbf{r})\) of a system can be expanded in terms of a series of multipole moments.
Neutron diffraction is a technique used to investigate the atomic and magnetic structures of materials by scattering neutrons off of them. It is similar to X-ray diffraction, but it utilizes neutrons instead of X-rays. The key aspects of neutron diffraction include: 1. **Neutron Source**: Neutrons are produced in nuclear reactors or spallation sources. These neutrons are then directed toward the sample being studied.
New Worlds Mission is a NASA initiative aimed at searching for potentially habitable exoplanets and studying their atmospheres to potentially identify signs of life. One of the key components of this mission involves the use of a spacecraft equipped with advanced technology, including a coronagraph that can block out the light from a star and allow for direct imaging and analysis of its surrounding planets. The mission aims to characterize the environment of these planets and understand their atmospheres, composition, and potential habitability.
Powder diffraction is a scientific technique used to analyze the crystalline structure of materials in powder form. This method is commonly employed in fields such as materials science, chemistry, geology, and metallurgy to determine the arrangement of atoms within a crystalline solid. **Key features of powder diffraction include:** 1. **Sample Requirements**: The sample must be in powder form, which allows the random orientation of crystallites.
Precession Electron Diffraction (PED) is a technique used in electron microscopy to enhance the quality of diffraction data obtained from crystalline materials. It involves the precession of the electron beam around a predetermined axis while the electron diffraction pattern is recorded. Key features of Precession Electron Diffraction include: 1. **Beam Precession**: Instead of maintaining a static electron beam, the beam is rotated or precessed at a specific angle relative to the sample.
Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction (RHEED) is a surface-sensitive analytical technique used primarily to characterize the structure and properties of thin films and surfaces at the atomic level. The method involves directing a beam of high-energy electronsâtypically in the range of 10 to 100 keVâat a shallow angle onto the surface of a sample, such as a thin film or a crystalline substrate.
In the context of structural biology and X-ray crystallography, "resolution" refers to the level of detail that can be discerned in the electron density map produced during protein or molecular structure determination. It is typically expressed in terms of the smallest distance between features that can be distinguished in the final structure, measured in angstroms (Ă
).
Rietveld refinement is a powerful mathematical technique used in crystallography to extract precise structural information from powder diffraction data. Named after Hugo Rietveld, who introduced the method in the 1960s, this approach is particularly effective for analyzing complex materials where single crystal diffraction is difficult or impossible. In powder diffraction, a sample is finely powdered, and X-ray or neutron diffraction patterns are collected.
STED microscopy, or Stimulated Emission Depletion microscopy, is a super-resolution imaging technique used in fluorescence microscopy. It was developed to overcome the diffraction limit of conventional light microscopy, which typically restricts resolution to about 200 nanometers for visible light. The fundamental principle behind STED microscopy involves the use of two laser beams: 1. **Excitation Beam**: This laser excites fluorescent molecules (fluorophores) in the sample, causing them to emit light.
Scattering amplitude is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics and quantum field theory that describes the probability amplitude for a scattering process to occur. It quantifies how likely it is for incoming particles (or waves) to be scattered into a specific final state after interacting with each other. ### Key Points about Scattering Amplitude: 1. **Quantum Mechanics Framework**: In the context of quantum mechanics, the scattering amplitude is related to the wave function of the incoming and outgoing particles.
SchaeferâBergmann diffraction refers to a specific phenomenon related to the diffraction of light or waves when they encounter a periodic structure. This term is often associated with studies in the field of optics or materials science, particularly in the context of understanding how waves interact with different types of materials or surface structures. In general, diffraction occurs when waves, such as light, encounter an obstacle or a slit that is comparable in size to their wavelength.
The Scherrer equation is a formula used in materials science and crystallography to estimate the size of crystalline domains in a material based on X-ray diffraction data. It provides a way to quantify the average size of coherently diffracting crystallites or grains within a sample. The equation is particularly useful for nanomaterials and thin films.
Selected Area Diffraction (SAD) is a technique used in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to analyze the crystallographic structure of materials. It allows researchers to obtain diffraction patterns from a specific area of a sample rather than from the entire specimen. This technique is particularly useful for studying the local structural properties of crystalline materials, including defects, phase composition, and orientation.
Strain scanning is a technique used to measure and analyze the strain (deformation) experienced by materials when subjected to external forces or environmental changes. It is commonly applied in fields such as materials science, structural engineering, and geophysics to assess how materials or structures respond under stress.
In the context of condensed matter physics, a "superstructure" refers to a periodic arrangement of atoms or molecules that goes beyond the basic repeating unit of a crystal lattice. This term is commonly used to describe phenomena where the atomic arrangement exhibits a longer-range periodicity, often resulting from certain interactions within the material, such as those related to changes in composition, temperature, or pressure.
The Talbot effect, also known as the Talbot phenomenon, is an optical phenomenon that occurs when coherent light (such as from a laser) is illuminated on a periodic structure, such as a grating. When the light passes through the grating, it creates a series of diffraction patterns that repeat at specific distances, known as the Talbot distance.
Ultrafast X-ray refers to a category of X-ray imaging and spectroscopy techniques that utilize extremely short pulses of X-ray radiation, typically on the scale of femtoseconds (10^-15 seconds). These techniques are powerful tools for studying fast processes at the atomic and molecular levels in real time, such as chemical reactions, phase transitions, and electronic dynamics.
Ultrafast electron diffraction (UED) is a powerful experimental technique used to investigate dynamic processes in materials and molecular systems on very short timescales, typically in the femtosecond (10^-15 seconds) regime. It combines concepts from electron diffraction with ultrafast laser technology to capture real-time structural changes in materials as they undergo rapid transformations.
Ultrasonic grating is a technique that involves the use of ultrasonic waves to create a pattern or grating effect in a medium. This method can be applied in various fields, such as materials science, acoustics, and engineering, and can serve multiple purposes including diagnostics, imaging, and material characterization. In essence, ultrasonic grating works by generating high-frequency sound waves that can propagate through different materials.
The Uniform Theory of Diffraction (UTD) is a mathematical approach used in the fields of electromagnetic wave propagation and antenna theory. It is a refined method for analyzing how waves diffract around edges and over surfaces, particularly in situations where geometrical optics does not provide sufficient accuracy. ### Key Features of UTD: 1. **Physical Basis**: UTD combines principles of geometric optics with diffraction theory.
Wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) is a technique used in material science and structural biology to investigate the atomic and molecular structure of materials. It involves the scattering of X-rays from a sample, providing information about the arrangement of atoms within that sample. ### Key Components of WAXS: 1. **X-Ray Source**: WAXS uses X-ray beams generated from synchrotrons or X-ray tubes to probe the sample.
X-ray crystallography is a widely used technique for determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystalline substance. The technique involves directing X-ray beams at a crystal and analyzing the pattern of X-rays that are diffracted by the crystal lattice. Here's a basic overview of the process: 1. **Crystal Formation**: The first step in X-ray crystallography is the growth of high-quality crystals of the substance being studied. These crystals must be of sufficient size and purity to provide clear diffraction patterns.
XStream Systems is a company specializing in data protection and data transmission solutions, primarily focused on enabling secure access, sharing, and management of sensitive data. They typically provide services and technologies for data encryption, secure file transfer, and data integrity, catering to industries that require robust security measures for handling critical information. Their solutions are designed to help organizations protect their data from unauthorized access and breaches, ensuring compliance with various regulations and standards.
The term "zone axis" is commonly used in the context of crystallography and materials science, particularly in electron microscopy and diffraction studies. It refers to a specific direction in a crystal lattice that is used to analyze the orientation and symmetry of the crystal structure. In more detail: 1. **Crystallography**: In crystal structures, the zone axis is a line that represents the intersection of a series of lattice planes.
Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR), also known as Electron Spin Resonance (ESR), is a spectroscopic technique used to study materials that have unpaired electrons. These unpaired electrons can originate from a variety of sources, including free radicals, transition metal complexes, and certain types of defects in solids. ### Key Principles: 1. **Magnetic Moments**: Unpaired electrons possess a magnetic moment due to their spin, allowing them to interact with magnetic fields.
Acoustic paramagnetic resonance (APR) is a specialized technique used to study the properties of paramagnetic materials, which are substances that have unpaired electrons and exhibit magnetic properties. In APR, the interaction between acoustic waves (sound) and the magnetic resonance of paramagnetic species is examined. In this technique, a sample containing paramagnetic ions is subjected to both an external magnetic field and acoustic waves.
Electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) is a spectroscopic technique that combines electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to study the interactions between unpaired electrons and nearby nuclei. This method is particularly useful for investigating the environments of paramagnetic species, such as radicals or transition metal complexes, and for obtaining detailed information about their electronic and structural properties.
Pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), also known as pulse EPR or electron spin resonance (ESR), is a powerful spectroscopic technique used to study materials and molecules that contain unpaired electrons, such as free radicals or transition metal complexes. The technique is particularly effective in providing detailed information about the electronic environments of these unpaired electrons. ### Key Concepts of Pulsed EPR 1.
Spin echo is a fundamental technique in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy that is used to generate images and obtain high-quality spectral data. The concept of spin echo relies on the manipulation of atomic nuclei that have angular momentum, or "spin," in a magnetic field.
A spin label is a stable free radical used in various fields of scientific research, particularly in electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Spin labels are typically small, organic molecules that contain unpaired electrons, which give them magnetic properties. In biological and chemical studies, spin labels are often attached to specific sites in macromolecules, such as proteins or membranes, allowing researchers to study molecular environments, dynamics, and interactions at a molecular level.
Zero field splitting (ZFS) refers to the phenomenon observed in systems with unpaired electron spins, such as in transition metal complexes, where the degeneracy of the spin states is lifted even in the absence of an external magnetic field. This splitting occurs due to the interactions between the electrons within the system, primarily arising from spin-orbit coupling and electron-electron interactions. In quantum mechanics, every electron possesses a magnetic moment due to its spin.
Emission spectroscopy is an analytical technique used to identify and quantify the chemical composition of substances based on the light emitted by atoms or molecules when they are excited. When a substance is exposed to energy, such as heat or electromagnetic radiation, its electrons can be excited to higher energy levels. When these excited electrons return to their lower energy states, they release energy in the form of light (photons).
Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) is a powerful experimental technique used to study the electronic structure of materials. It provides information about the energy and momentum of electrons in a solid. The technique involves the following key steps: 1. **Photon Emission**: ARPES utilizes high-energy photons (typically from a synchrotron radiation source or lasers) to irradiate a material. When these photons interact with the material, they can eject electrons from the surface.
Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (AES) is an analytical technique used to identify and quantify elements in a sample based on the light emitted by atoms. The process involves the excitation of atoms, which causes them to emit light at characteristic wavelengths. This emitted light is then analyzed to determine the composition of the sample.
The Balmer series is a set of spectral lines corresponding to the transitions of electrons in hydrogen atoms from higher energy levels to the second energy level (n = 2). This series is part of the hydrogen emission spectrum and consists of visible light wavelengths.
Chemiluminescence is the production of light as a result of a chemical reaction. Unlike fluorescence or phosphorescence, where light is emitted after absorbing energy (usually from light), chemiluminescence generates light directly from the reaction itself. This phenomenon can occur in various biological and chemical processes. A common example of chemiluminescence is the light produced by fireflies.
Coronal radiative losses refer to the energy that is radiated away by the solar corona, which is the outermost layer of the Sun's atmosphere. The corona is extremely hot, with temperatures reaching millions of degrees Celsius, and it emits energy primarily in the form of X-rays and ultraviolet radiation. In astrophysics, particularly in the study of stellar atmospheres, radiative losses occur when hot plasma (such as that found in the corona) cools by emitting photons.
Einstein coefficients are a set of quantifiable parameters that describe the interaction of atoms or molecules with electromagnetic radiation. They are critical in the field of quantum mechanics and spectroscopy and were introduced by Albert Einstein in his seminal works on the theory of radiation in the early 20th century.
Equivalent width is a measure used in spectroscopy to quantify the strength of spectral lines, such as absorption or emission features in a spectrum. It provides a way to describe how much of the continuum flux is absorbed or emitted by a feature, relative to the continuum level.
The Evershed effect refers to the observed radial outflow of plasma from sunspot regions in the solar atmosphere, particularly in the photosphere and chromosphere. Named after the British astronomer F. W. Evershed, who described it in the early 20th century, this effect is characterized by the detection of a blue shift in spectral lines in sunspot penumbrae, indicating that material is moving outward at high speeds.
Gaussian broadening is a technique used in various fields such as spectroscopy, astrophysics, and materials science to smooth or enhance the representation of data. The process involves convolving a given data set or signal with a Gaussian function (a bell-shaped curve), which effectively broadens the features in the data.
Glow-discharge optical emission spectroscopy (GD-OES) is an analytical technique used for the elemental analysis of solid materials. It combines two main processes: glow discharge and optical emission spectroscopy. Here's a brief overview of how it works and its applications: ### How It Works 1. **Glow Discharge**: - A glow discharge is established between two electrodes in a low-pressure gas (such as argon).
The Hydrogen line, also known as the 21-centimeter line, refers to the specific wavelength (21 centimeters) of electromagnetic radiation emitted by neutral hydrogen atoms. This emission occurs when the electron in a hydrogen atom transitions between two hyperfine levels of its ground state. The 21-cm line is significant in astronomy because it is a key spectral line used for studying the distribution and structure of hydrogen in the universe.
The hydrogen spectral series refers to the specific wavelengths of light emitted or absorbed by hydrogen atoms when electrons transition between different energy levels. These transitions occur when an electron absorbs energy and moves to a higher energy level (excitation) or when it releases energy and falls back to a lower energy level (emission). The emitted or absorbed light appears in distinct spectral lines, grouped into series corresponding to different electron transitions.
Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES), also known as Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES), is an analytical technique used for elemental analysis of various materials, including solids, liquids, and gases. Here's a brief overview of how it works and its applications: ### Principle: 1. **Induction of Plasma**: An inductively coupled plasma is created using a high-frequency (usually radiofrequency) electric field.
Inverse photoemission spectroscopy (IPES) is a powerful experimental technique used to study the electronic states of materials, particularly surfaces and interfaces. In contrast to traditional photoemission spectroscopy (PES), which involves the excitation of electrons from a material by incident photons (measuring the emitted electrons), IPES involves the injection of electrons into a material, where these electrons can excite the material and subsequently emit photons.
Isotopic shift refers to the change in the energy levels of atomic or molecular states that occurs due to the substitution of an atom in a molecule with one of its isotopes. This shift can be observed in various spectroscopic techniques, such as infrared (IR) spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The isotopic effect arises because isotopes of the same element have different masses, which affects vibrational frequencies, rotational transitions, and other properties of molecules.
Laser-based angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) is an advanced experimental technique used primarily in condensed matter physics to investigate the electronic structure of materials. It combines the principles of angle-resolved photoemission with the high energy and specificity offered by lasers. ### Key Features of Laser-based ARPES: 1. **Photoemission Principle**: In ARPES, photons are used to excite and eject electrons from a material's surface.
The Lyman-alpha line is a specific spectral line in the ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum. It corresponds to a transition of an electron in a hydrogen atom from the second energy level (n=2) to the first energy level (n=1). This transition emits a photon with a wavelength of approximately 121.6 nanometers (nm).
Lyman continuum photons are a specific type of ultraviolet (UV) photons that have energies high enough to ionize hydrogen atoms. This range of photon energies corresponds to wavelengths shorter than the Lyman series limit, which is approximately 91.2 nanometers (nm). More specifically, the Lyman continuum refers to the wavelength range below 91.
The Lyman series refers to a series of spectral lines corresponding to electronic transitions in the hydrogen atom. Specifically, it consists of transitions where an electron moves from a higher energy level (n â„ 2) down to the ground state (n = 1). These transitions emit ultraviolet light, and the wavelengths of the emitted photons can be calculated using the Rydberg formula.
Microturbulence is a term primarily used in astrophysics and astronomy, specifically in the study of stellar atmospheres and the behavior of gases in space. It refers to small-scale, turbulent motions within a stellar atmosphere or in the interstellar medium that can affect the interpretation of spectral lines. In the context of a star's atmosphere, microturbulence is thought to be a form of turbulence that occurs on very small spatial scales, leading to localized and chaotic movements of gas.
Nano-Angle-Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy (Nano-ARPES) is an advanced experimental technique in condensed matter physics used to study the electronic structure of materials at the nanoscale. It combines the principles of angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) with nanoscale spatial resolution.
Particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) is an analytical technique used to determine the elemental composition of various materials. It involves bombarding a sample with high-energy particles, typically protons or alpha particles, which causes the emission of characteristic X-rays from the atoms in the sample. ### Key Steps of the PIXE Process: 1. **Sample Irradiation**: The sample is hit by a beam of high-energy particles.
Photoemission spectroscopy (PES) is an analytical technique used to investigate the electronic properties of materials. It involves the absorption of photons (light) by a sample, which results in the emission of electrons. The primary goal of PES is to study the energy and distribution of these emitted electrons, providing valuable insights into the material's electronic structure. ### Basic Principles: - **Excitation:** A sample is irradiated with high-energy photons, typically from ultraviolet or X-ray sources.
In the context of spectroscopy, "principal series" refers to a specific set of spectral lines that arise from the electronic transitions of atoms or ions, particularly in the hydrogen atom and hydrogen-like systems. These transitions occur between different energy levels characterized by principal quantum numbers. For hydrogen, the principal series typically involves transitions where an electron moves from higher energy levels (n â„ 2) down to the first energy level (n = 1).
The RydbergâRitz combination principle is a concept in the field of spectroscopy that relates to the spectral lines of atoms, particularly hydrogen. It was formulated in the early 20th century based on the work of physicists Johannes Rydberg and Walther Ritz.
The term "Sharp series" typically refers to a mathematical concept that may not be widely known as a specific series. However, it could relate to several contexts where "sharp" indicates precision or a specific property of a series.
The Struve-Sahade effect refers to an astrophysical phenomenon that occurs in certain binary star systems, particularly in cases where one of the stars is a giant star. It describes the observational changes in the spectra of the components of the binary system due to the presence of the giant star's extended atmosphere, which can influence the absorption lines seen in the spectrum.
The term "Swan band" can refer to two distinct concepts depending on the context: 1. **Music Context**: The Swan Band might refer to a specific musical group or ensemble known for their particular style or repertoire. However, there isn't a widely recognized band by that name as of my last knowledge update in October 2023.
Two-photon photoelectron spectroscopy (TPPE) is a sophisticated technique used in the field of surface science and condensed matter physics to investigate the electronic properties of materials. This technique enables the study of the electronic structure and dynamics of materials at various interfaces, such as solid-vacuum, solid-liquid, or solid-gas interfaces.
Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS) is an analytical technique used to study the electronic structure of materials, particularly surfaces and thin films. It is based on the photoelectric effect, where ultraviolet light is used to irradiate a sample, resulting in the emission of photoelectrons from the material. ### Key Features of UPS: 1. **Principle**: UPS involves shining UV light onto a sample, which causes electrons to be ejected.
Vibrational energy relaxation refers to the process by which vibrational energy, which is the energy associated with the vibrational motion of atoms within a molecule, dissipates or transitions to other forms of energy, typically in a condensed phase or gas. This process is significant in various fields, including physical chemistry, materials science, and biophysics, as it plays a critical role in energy transfer mechanisms, chemical reactions, and the behavior of complex systems.
Wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDX or WDS) is an analytical technique used to determine the elemental composition of materials. It is widely employed in various fields such as materials science, geology, and semiconductor research. WDX relies on the principle of X-ray fluorescence, where a sample is irradiated with a beam of X-rays, causing the atoms in the sample to emit secondary X-rays characteristic of their elemental composition.
X-ray emission spectroscopy is a technique used to analyze the elemental composition of materials by measuring the X-rays emitted from a sample when it is excited by a source of X-rays or other high-energy radiation. This method provides information about the types and quantities of elements present in the sample. ### Key Principles: 1. **Excitation**: When a sample is irradiated with high-energy photons (such as X-rays), inner-shell electrons may be ejected from atoms in the sample.
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is an analytical technique used to study the surface chemistry of materials. It involves irradiating a material with X-rays, which causes the ejection of photoelectrons from the surface atoms. By measuring the kinetic energy of these emitted photoelectrons, XPS can provide information about the elemental composition, chemical state, and electronic state of the elements present in the material.
Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy) is an analytical technique used to identify and study chemical substances based on their interaction with infrared radiation. The fundamental principle of IR spectroscopy involves the absorption of infrared light by molecules, causing them to vibrate. Different chemical bonds within a molecule will absorb infrared light at characteristic frequencies, which depend on factors such as the types of atoms involved, the bond lengths, and the molecular structure.
Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) is a technique primarily used in infrared spectroscopy to analyze the surface properties of materials. It's particularly effective for studying thin films, coatings, or solid samples without the need for extensive sample preparation. ### Key Features of ATR: 1. **Principle**: - ATR relies on the phenomenon of total internal reflection.
Diffuse Reflectance Infrared Fourier Transform Spectroscopy (DRIFTS) is an analytical technique used to obtain the infrared spectrum of solid and powdered samples. It is particularly useful for materials that are difficult to analyze in traditional transmission mode, such as powders, solid materials, and heterogeneous samples. ### Key Features of DRIFTS: 1. **Principle of Operation**: DRIFTS involves the interaction of infrared radiation with the sample surface.
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is an analytical technique used to obtain the infrared spectrum of absorption or emission of a solid, liquid, or gas. It is widely employed in chemistry, material science, and various fields to identify and characterize substances based on their molecular vibrations. ### Key Features of FTIR: 1. **Principle**: FTIR works on the principle that different molecules absorb specific frequencies of infrared light to produce vibrational transitions.
GEISA (Gestionnaire d'Etalonnage des Instruments Scientifiques et Atmosphériques) is a database and software system developed by the French National Centre for Meteorological Research (CNRM) and the French National Institute for the Prevention of Atmospheric and Oceanic Research (CNES). It is primarily used for the analysis and retrieval of atmospheric radiative transfer data.
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) is a powerful analytical technique widely used in geology for various applications. Here are some of the primary applications of FTIR in geological studies: 1. **Mineral Identification**: FTIR is extensively used to identify and characterize minerals through their specific absorption bands. Different minerals exhibit unique spectral signatures, allowing for precise identification. 2. **Clay Mineral Analysis**: FTIR is particularly useful in the study of clay minerals, which have complex structures.
A Golay cell, also known as a Golay detector or Golay sound cell, is an electrochemical device used for the detection and measurement of infrared radiation, particularly in the mid-infrared range. It is named after the Swiss physicist Marcel Golay, who contributed to its development. ### Key Features of Golay Cells: 1. **Structure**: A Golay cell typically consists of a gas-filled chamber with a diaphragm and a pair of electrodes.
The HagenâRubens relation is a formula that describes the relationship between the electrical conductivity of a material and its optical properties, particularly in the context of metallic materials and their interaction with electromagnetic radiation. Specifically, it relates the extinction coefficient (which measures how much light is absorbed or scattered) to the electrical conductivity of a metal or a degenerate semiconductor at certain frequencies, generally in the infrared range.
Infrared Nanospectroscopy, often referred to as AFM-IR (Atomic Force Microscopy-Infrared Spectroscopy), is a technique that combines atomic force microscopy (AFM) with infrared (IR) spectroscopy to provide spatially resolved chemical information at the nanoscale. This innovative approach enables researchers to study the chemical composition and properties of materials with high spatial resolution, typically at the nanoscale level, which is much finer than conventional IR spectroscopy techniques.
An infrared spectroscopy correlation table is a reference tool that correlates specific functional groups and molecular structures to their characteristic absorption wavelengths (or frequencies) in the infrared (IR) region of the electromagnetic spectrum. These correlations are particularly useful in identifying various chemical compounds through their IR spectra. ### Key Components of an Infrared Spectroscopy Correlation Table: 1. **Wavenumber (cmâ»Âč)**: The main output of an IR spectroscopy analysis, indicating the frequency of vibrations of bonds in a molecule.
Libration in the context of molecular chemistry refers to a type of molecular motion, often associated with the oscillatory behavior of atoms or groups within a molecule. This motion usually involves small oscillations around an equilibrium position rather than large-scale rotations or translations. In many cases, libration is observed in large or complex organic molecules, especially those with flexible structures, where certain parts of the molecule can move relative to one another.
Microfluidic modulation spectroscopy is a technique that combines the principles of microfluidics with spectroscopic methods to analyze and manipulate small volumes of fluids at the microscale. This approach is particularly useful in various fields such as chemistry, biology, and materials science, as it allows for the study of samples with high sensitivity and precision.
Mulling is a technique used in spectroscopy, particularly in infrared (IR) spectroscopy, to prepare samples for analysis. In this method, a small amount of the solid sample is blended with a mulling agent, usually a non-volatile liquid, to create a uniform paste or suspension that can be analyzed. The mulling agent is typically an oil or other solvent that can help disperse the solid sample and improve its compatibility with the spectroscopic technique being used.
Nano-FTIR (Nanoscopic Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) is an advanced spectroscopic technique that combines traditional Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy with nanoscale imaging capabilities. This method allows researchers to obtain high-resolution infrared spectra of materials at the nanometer scale, providing detailed information about molecular vibrations and chemical composition.
A Nondispersive Infrared (NDIR) sensor is a type of gas sensor that measures the concentration of specific gases by detecting the infrared radiation absorbed by those gases. NDIR sensors operate on the principle that different gases absorb infrared light at specific wavelengths. Hereâs how they work: 1. **Infrared Source**: The sensor consists of an infrared light source (usually an LED or infrared lamp) that emits light over a spectrum that includes the wavelengths corresponding to the gases of interest.
Nujol is a trademarked name for a mineral oil that is commonly used as a solvent in the preparation of certain types of reagents and analytical mixtures, particularly in chemistry. It is often utilized in laboratories for its inert properties, meaning it does not react with the substances being studied. In addition to its use in laboratory settings, Nujol is sometimes referred to in the context of oiling and lubricating machinery or as a medium for certain industrial applications.
An overtone band refers to a group of spectral lines that correspond to the molecular vibrations of a substance where the vibrational frequency is a multiple (or harmonic) of the fundamental frequency. In the context of spectroscopy, overtones are associated with higher energy transitions that occur beyond the fundamental vibrational transitions of a molecule.
Project 1640 is an astronomical initiative aimed at directly imaging exoplanets, particularly those orbiting around nearby stars. The project primarily focuses on using advanced adaptive optics and coronagraphy techniques to minimize the light from a star, allowing astronomers to detect and study the light coming from planets that orbit those stars. The project was developed specifically to enhance the capabilities of telescopes like the Palomar Observatory's Hale Telescope.
The Rule of Mutual Exclusion is a principle in various fields, including computer science, game theory, and economics, that ensures that certain activities or events cannot occur simultaneously. The concept is especially important in scenarios where resources are limited or where operations must not interfere with one another. In computer science, mutual exclusion is a key concept in concurrent programming.
The Spectral Database for Organic Compounds (SDBS) is a comprehensive online resource that provides access to spectral data for a wide variety of organic compounds. It is maintained by the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) in Japan. The database includes different types of spectral data, such as: 1. **Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectra**: These provide information about the molecular structure and help in identifying compounds based on their chemical environment.
Spectro-Polarimetric High-Contrast Exoplanet Research (SPHERE) is a sophisticated astronomical instrument designed for direct imaging and characterization of exoplanets around nearby stars. Developed for use with telescopes like the Very Large Telescope (VLT) in Chile, SPHERE combines several advanced techniques to improve the detection and analysis of faint objects, such as planets, in the vicinity of much brighter stars.
The Tolman electronic parameter, often abbreviated as \( \tau \), is a measure used in coordination chemistry to describe the trans influence of ligands in a coordination complex, particularly with regard to how they affect the electronic properties of metal centers. Specifically, it provides insight into the ability of a ligand to stabilize certain oxidation states of a metal ion and how they interact electronically with the metal. The parameter is named after Richard C.
Two-dimensional infrared (2D IR) spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used to investigate the dynamics and interactions of molecular systems. It combines the principles of traditional infrared spectroscopy with two-dimensional data analysis, allowing for a more detailed characterization of molecular vibrations, interactions, and conformations.
Mössbauer spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used to study the properties of atomic nuclei by observing the resonant absorption of gamma rays. Named after the German physicist Rudolf Mössbauer, who discovered the effect in 1958, this technique relies on the Mössbauer effect, which allows gamma rays to be emitted and absorbed without any recoil by the emitting or absorbing nucleus.
Caroline Herzenberg is a physicist known for her contributions to experimental physics, particularly in the field of particle physics. She has been involved in significant research projects, including work with neutrino experiments and investigations into fundamental particles. Herzenberg is also known for advocating for women in science and has participated in various initiatives to promote diversity and inclusion within the scientific community.
Conversion electron Mössbauer spectroscopy (CEMS) is a specialized technique derived from Mössbauer spectroscopy that involves the detection of conversion electrons emitted from excited nuclei as a means to study the properties of materials at the atomic level. This method is particularly useful for investigating the electronic and chemical environments of specific isotopes in solid-state systems.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used primarily to determine the structure and dynamics of molecules in various fields, including chemistry, biochemistry, and medicine. The technique leverages the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei. Hereâs how it works: ### Basic Principles: 1. **Nuclear Spin**: Some nuclei have a property called "spin," which gives them a magnetic moment.
A benchtop nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometer is a compact and user-friendly instrument used for molecular structure determination and analysis based on the principles of nuclear magnetic resonance. Unlike traditional large-scale NMR spectrometers, which are typically housed in dedicated laboratories and require significant infrastructure, benchtop NMR spectrometers are smaller, more affordable, and easier to operate.
Chemical shift is a term used in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to describe the variation in resonance frequency of nuclei in a magnetic field due to their electronic environment. When atomic nuclei are placed in a magnetic field, they resonate at specific frequencies. However, the presence of surrounding electrons influences these frequencies, leading to shifts in the resonance peaks observed in an NMR spectrum. ### Key Points about Chemical Shift: 1. **Units**: Chemical shift is measured in parts per million (ppm).
The Ernst angle is a concept from the field of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It refers to a specific angle of rotation that maximizes the signal intensity in certain imaging or relaxation sequences. In longitudinal relaxation, the Ernst angle is associated with the optimal flip angle that maximizes the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for a given repetition time (TR) in an NMR experiment.
In vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is a non-invasive imaging technique used to study the biochemical composition of tissues in living organisms, typically in humans. It operates on principles similar to those of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), utilizing strong magnetic fields and radiofrequency pulses to detect and analyze the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei in various molecules.
Knight shift refers to a phenomenon observed in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), particularly in the context of studying the electronic properties of materials. Named after physicist William D. Knight, the Knight shift is a measure of the change in the resonance frequency of nuclei in a magnetic field due to the influence of the local electronic environment.
The Nuclear Overhauser Effect (NOE) is a phenomenon observed in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy that arises from the interaction between spin states of neighboring nuclear spins, typically hydrogen nuclei (protons). It is a result of the cross-relaxation process between closely spaced nuclei, which can enhance the NMR signal of certain nuclei in the presence of others.
Nuclear acoustic resonance (NAR) is a phenomenon that combines principles of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) with acoustic waves. It primarily focuses on interactions between nuclear spins and acoustic vibrations in a material. This concept can be understood within the context of solid-state physics and materials science. In NAR, the spins of nuclei are influenced by acoustic waves, which can lead to transitions between quantum states of the nuclei.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) database methods refer to the use of NMR spectroscopy data in conjunction with databases to analyze, interpret, and predict molecular structures and properties. NMR spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used to determine the structure, dynamics, and environment of molecules.
A Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectra database is a collection of NMR spectra that have been produced from various chemical compounds. NMR spectroscopy is an analytical technique used to determine the structure, dynamics, and environment of molecules based on the magnetic properties of certain nuclei. The most commonly studied nucleus is hydrogen (\(^1H\)) but carbon (\(^13C\)), nitrogen (\(^15N\)), and phosphorus (\(^31P\)) are also frequently used.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used to determine the structure and dynamics of molecules, including carbohydrates. In the context of carbohydrates, NMR spectroscopy provides valuable information about their chemical structure, conformation, and interactions. ### Key Aspects of NMR Spectroscopy of Carbohydrates: 1. **Principle**: NMR relies on the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei, primarily hydrogen (^1H) and carbon (^13C) nuclei in carbohydrates.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used to study the structure and dynamics of molecules, particularly in organic chemistry and biochemistry. When applied to nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, NMR spectroscopy provides insights into their structure, conformation, interactions, and dynamics at the atomic level.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used to determine the structure, dynamics, and interactions of proteins and other biomolecules at the atomic level. The method relies on the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei, primarily hydrogen (ÂčH), carbon (ÂčÂłC), nitrogen (Âčâ”N), and phosphorus (ÂłÂčP). Hereâs a more detailed overview of how NMR spectroscopy works in the context of proteins: ### Basic Principles of NMR 1.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used to determine the structure of molecules, including stereoisomers. It relies on the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei, particularly those of hydrogen (^1H) and carbon (^13C), to gather information about the molecular environment of these nuclei. ### Key Concepts of NMR Spectroscopy: 1. **Nuclei and Magnetic Fields**: NMR exploits the magnetic properties of certain nuclei.
Paramagnetic nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a specialized technique that takes advantage of the magnetic properties of certain paramagnetic speciesâatoms or molecules that have unpaired electrons, which can contribute to a magnetic moment. This technique is particularly useful for studying the structure and dynamics of molecules that contain transition metal ions or free radicals, which are commonly paramagnetic.
Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (ÂčH NMR) is a powerful analytical technique used in chemistry and biochemistry to determine the structure of organic compounds and the dynamics of molecular systems. It relies on the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei, in this case, the hydrogen nucleus (proton). In ÂčH NMR, a sample is placed in a strong magnetic field and subjected to radiofrequency radiation. The protons within the sample resonate at specific frequencies that depend on their chemical environment.
Residual chemical shift anisotropy (RCSA) refers to a phenomenon observed primarily in the context of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, particularly in solid-state NMR and biomolecular NMR. It is an important concept in understanding how molecular dynamics and interactions affect chemical shifts of nuclei in a sample. In NMR, chemical shifts arise from the magnetic environments surrounding nuclei, which can be influenced by the electronic environment created by nearby atoms and molecular structure.
The Solomon equations refer to a set of equations used primarily in the context of hydrology and environmental science to describe the movement of water through unsaturated soils. Named after the work of Professor L. L. Solomon, these equations are used to model the flow of moisture in relation to variables such as soil saturation, porosity, and hydraulic conductivity.
Triple-resonance nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a sophisticated technique used primarily in the study of proteins and other complex molecules. This method exploits the interactions between three different nuclear spins (typically involving different isotopes of atoms such as hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen) to provide detailed information about molecular structure, dynamics, and interactions.
Two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (2D NMR) spectroscopy is a sophisticated technique used to analyze the structural and dynamic properties of molecules, particularly in organic chemistry and biochemistry. This method extends traditional one-dimensional NMR spectroscopy by providing additional information about the interactions between nuclear spins in a molecule. ### Key Features of 2D NMR Spectroscopy: 1. **Dimension Expansion**: In 2D NMR, the information is spread across two frequency dimensions rather than one.
A spectrograph is an instrument used to analyze the light spectrum emitted, absorbed, or scattered by materials. It separates light into its component wavelengths (or colors) and records these wavelengths to produce a spectrum, which provides valuable information about the physical properties and composition of the light source being studied. Spectrographs are widely used in various fields, including: 1. **Astronomy**: To study the composition, temperature, density, and motion of celestial objects by analyzing their emitted or absorbed light.
The Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) is an instrument aboard the Hubble Space Telescope, designed to study the ultraviolet (UV) spectrum of cosmic objects. Launched in 2009 during the servicing mission STS-125, COS significantly enhances Hubble's capability to observe the universe's formation and evolution.
The ELODIE spectrograph (Ăchelle LOw Dispersion, Original Digital Ăchelle) is a high-resolution spectrograph originally designed for stellar spectroscopy. It was installed at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence in France and has been used extensively for the study of stellar atmospheres, the search for exoplanets, and the observation of the chemical composition of stars.
ESPRESSO can refer to different concepts depending on the context. Here are a few possibilities: 1. **Coffee**: Espresso is a concentrated coffee beverage brewed by forcing a small amount of nearly boiling water through finely-ground coffee beans. It is characterized by its rich flavor and thick crema (the golden layer that forms on top of a well-prepared espresso).
EXPRES, short for "Express Purpose-Driven Research for Earth Science," is a collaborative initiative aimed at addressing various challenges in Earth sciences through research and innovation. This program typically focuses on integrating cutting-edge technology, data analysis, and interdisciplinary approaches to enhance our understanding of Earth's systems, climate change, natural resources, and environmental sustainability. However, there could be other contexts or meanings associated with the acronym EXPRES in different fields, such as engineering, technology, or even specific projects or products.
The Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS) is an instrument that was used on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) to analyze the light from faint astronomical objects, enabling astronomers to study their composition, temperature, motion, and other physical properties. The FOS was particularly effective for spectroscopic measurements, which involve breaking down light into its constituent wavelengths to identify the chemical elements present in celestial bodies.
Fiber-optic Improved Next-generation Doppler Search for Exo-Earths (FINDS Exo-Earths) is a scientific project aimed at discovering and characterizing exoplanetsâspecifically Earth-like planets that might be capable of supporting lifeâusing advanced Doppler spectroscopy techniques. The project is part of efforts to enhance our understanding of planets beyond our solar system.
The Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS) and Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph (NIRISS) are scientific instruments used in astrophysical observations, particularly aboard the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). ### Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS) The Fine Guidance Sensor is designed primarily to provide precision pointing and stabilization for the JWST.
The Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS) was an instrument used aboard the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) to perform high-resolution spectroscopy of astronomical objects. It was one of the two spectrographs on Hubble, the other being the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS). **Key features of GHRS include:** 1.
HARPS-N (High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Searcher - North) is a high-precision spectrograph designed for the detection of exoplanets through the radial velocity method. It is located at the TNG (Telescopio Nazionale Galileo) on the island of La Palma in the Canary Islands, Spain.
The High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) is an advanced spectrograph designed for the precise measurement of the radial velocities of stars. Located at the La Silla Observatory in Chile, HARPS is particularly renowned for its capability to detect exoplanets through the radial velocity method. This technique involves observing the slight wobble of a star caused by the gravitational influence of orbiting planets, which leads to shifts in the star's spectral lines.
An Integral Field Spectrograph (IFS) is an advanced astronomical instrument used to obtain detailed spectral information over a two-dimensional field of view. It combines imaging and spectroscopy, allowing astronomers to study both the spatial distribution and the spectral characteristics of light from celestial objects simultaneously.
The Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) is a NASA astrophysics mission that was launched on June 27, 2013, with the purpose of studying the solar atmosphere, specifically the interface region between the solar photosphere and the corona. This region is particularly important because it is where much of the energy that heats the corona is believed to be transferred, and it plays a key role in solar phenomena such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections.
The Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) is one of the key scientific instruments aboard the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which was launched on December 25, 2021. MIRI is designed to observe the universe in the mid-infrared spectrum, which ranges from about 5 to 28 micrometers. This part of the electromagnetic spectrum is important for studying a variety of astronomical phenomena.
NIRSpec, or the Near Infrared Spectrograph, is a scientific instrument aboard the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). It is designed to perform spectroscopy in the near-infrared range (0.6 to 5 microns), allowing scientists to study the composition, temperature, density, and motion of various astronomical objects, including stars, galaxies, and exoplanets.
The **PRL Advanced Radial-velocity All-sky Search (PARAS)** is an astronomical project aimed at detecting exoplanets around distant stars using radial velocity measurements. This project utilizes high-precision spectroscopy to measure the subtle shifts in the wavelength of light emitted by stars, which are caused by the gravitational influence of orbiting planets.
The SOPHIE Ă©chelle spectrograph is a high-resolution astronomical spectrograph used for the study of stellar spectra. It is primarily mounted on the 1.93-meter telescope at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence in France. SOPHIE is designed to observe the spectra of stars and is particularly well-suited for detecting exoplanets through Doppler spectroscopy, which involves measuring the slight shifts in the spectral lines of stars caused by the gravitational influence of orbiting planets.
The Swiss 1.2-metre Leonhard Euler Telescope (SELT) is an astronomical telescope located at the La Silla Observatory in Chile, which is operated by the European Southern Observatory (ESO). It is named after the Swiss mathematician and astronomer Leonhard Euler. The telescope has a primary mirror with a diameter of 1.2 meters and is primarily used for research in astrophysics and for observations of celestial objects.
UVS (Ultraviolet Spectrograph) is an instrument on board NASA's Juno spacecraft, which is designed to study Jupiter. Juno was launched in 2011 and entered orbit around Jupiter in July 2016. The UVS specifically focuses on collecting ultraviolet light to help scientists analyze the composition and dynamics of Jupiter's atmosphere, including its auroras, which are among the most powerful in the solar system.
The Visible Multi-Object Spectrograph (VIMOS) is an instrument designed for use on large ground-based telescopes, particularly the Very Large Telescope (VLT) at the European Southern Observatory (ESO) in Chile. VIMOS is primarily used for spectroscopy, a technique that involves splitting light into its component wavelengths (or colors) to analyze the properties of astronomical objects.
A spectrometer is an analytical instrument used to measure and analyze the properties of light across a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Spectrometers can be used to identify materials, determine concentrations of substances, and study the physical and chemical properties of samples by analyzing the light they emit, absorb, or scatter. ### Key Components: 1. **Light Source**: Produces the light that is directed toward the sample. Common sources include lasers, lamps, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
An acousto-optical spectrometer is a scientific instrument that combines the principles of acoustics and optics to analyze the spectral composition of light. This type of spectrometer utilizes an acousto-optic cell, where an acoustic wave interacts with light, resulting in a modulation of the light's frequency and intensity according to the acoustic wave's properties.
Alice is a scientific instrument designed for use aboard the New Horizons spacecraft, which was launched by NASA to conduct a flyby of Pluto and its moons in 2015. Alice is a ultraviolet (UV) spectrograph, which means it is capable of measuring ultraviolet light across a range of wavelengths. The primary goals of the Alice instrument are to study the composition and structure of the atmospheres of Pluto and its moons, as well as to analyze the surface properties of these celestial bodies.
The AlikhanianâAlikhanov spectrometer is a type of device used in nuclear and particle physics for detecting and analyzing gamma rays and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. Named after physicists A.I. Alikhanian and A.A. Alikhanov, the spectrometer typically leverages scintillation detectors or other detection technologies to measure the energy and intensity of radiation emitted during various nuclear processes.
The Atmospheric Chemistry Suite (ACS) is a set of software tools and models developed primarily for the purpose of studying and understanding atmospheric chemistry, particularly the processes involved in the Earth's atmosphere. Typically, ACS includes a variety of components that may be used for simulating and predicting atmospheric chemical processes, studying the interactions between different atmospheric species, and assessing the impacts of human activities and natural phenomena on air quality and climate.
A Bonner sphere is a type of neutron detection and measurement device used in radiation physics. It consists of a sphere made of a hydrogenous material, such as polyethylene, that is surrounded by a layer of neutron moderator or shielding material, often containing boron or other neutron-absorbing substances. The primary purpose of the Bonner sphere is to measure neutron flux or dose rates in a radiation field.
The CLAS (CEBAF Large Acceptance Spectrometer) detector is a significant experimental apparatus used in the field of nuclear and particle physics, specifically at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) in the United States. Its primary purpose is to study the properties of hadrons (particles made of quarks, such as protons and neutrons), as well as to explore the structure of nucleons (protons and neutrons).
The Canadian Penning Trap Mass Spectrometer (CPTMS) is a type of mass spectrometer that utilizes the Penning trap technique for high-precision mass measurements of ions. This instrument is primarily used in nuclear physics, mass spectrometry, and related fields to analyze the mass-to-charge ratios of ions, which can provide valuable information about their composition and properties.
The Cary 14 Spectrophotometer is an optical instrument that is used to measure the absorbance and transmittance of light in a sample over a specified wavelength range. Developed by Varian (now part of Agilent Technologies), the Cary series of spectrophotometers, including the Cary 14, are known for their high performance and reliability in various scientific and industrial applications.
Clover is a type of gamma-ray detector used in nuclear physics, particularly for experiments involving the detection and measurement of gamma radiation emitted from radioactive materials. The Clover detector is an acronym that stands for "Clover-type Ge detector." Clover detectors are typically made using high-purity Germanium (HPGe) crystals. They are designed to provide high-resolution measurements of gamma-ray energies, which is crucial for identifying isotopes and studying nuclear decay processes.
The Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) is an instrument aboard NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), which was launched in August 2005. CRISM is designed to capture high-resolution images of the Martian surface and analyze the mineral composition through spectral imaging.
A Computed Tomography Imaging Spectrometer (CTIS) is an advanced imaging technology that combines principles from both computed tomography (CT) and spectroscopy. It is used to capture detailed images of objects while simultaneously measuring their spectral properties, allowing for the analysis of material composition and other characteristics at different wavelengths of light. ### Key Features of CTIS: 1. **Imaging and Spectroscopy**: CTIS can produce spatial images while capturing spectral information across a range of wavelengths.
A DU spectrophotometer is a type of laboratory instrument used for measuring the absorbance or transmittance of light by a sample at specific wavelengths. The "DU" in DU spectrophotometer typically refers to a specific model series produced by Beckman Coulter, a company known for its laboratory instruments and analytical devices.
The Dobson ozone spectrophotometer is an instrument used to measure the concentration of ozone in the Earth's atmosphere. Developed in the 1920s by British scientist G. M. B. Dobson, it became one of the most significant tools for monitoring atmospheric ozone levels, especially in the stratosphere.
An **Electrical Aerosol Spectrometer (EAS)** is an analytical instrument used to measure and characterize aerosol particles in the atmosphere or various environments. Aerosols are tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in gas, and they can have significant effects on air quality, climate, and human health. ### Key Features and Functionality: 1. **Particle Size Distribution**: EAS devices measure the size distribution of aerosol particles, which is crucial for understanding their sources, behavior, and impacts.
An electron spectrometer is an analytical instrument used to measure the energies and distributions of electrons ejected from a material when it is bombarded with a source of energy, such as X-rays or ultraviolet light. It is widely used in fields such as material science, surface science, and solid-state physics to study the electronic structure and properties of materials.
FLEX, or the Fluorescence Explorer, is a satellite mission developed by the European Space Agency (ESA) aimed at monitoring and understanding the Earth's vegetation fluorescence. It is designed to measure the natural fluorescence emitted by plants as they undergo photosynthesis, which provides valuable insights into plant health, productivity, and the carbon cycle.
A filter fluorometer is an analytical instrument used to measure the concentration of fluorescent substances in a sample by detecting the light emitted by those substances after they have been excited by a specific wavelength of light. Fluorometry is based on the principle of fluorescence, where certain molecules absorb light at one wavelength and then re-emit it at a longer wavelength.
A fluorometer is an analytical instrument used to measure the intensity of fluorescent light emitted by a sample after it has been excited by a specific wavelength of light. It is commonly used in various fields such as chemistry, biology, environmental monitoring, and medical diagnostics. ### Key Components and Functionality: 1. **Light Source**: Typically a lamp or laser that emits light at a specific wavelength to excite the fluorescent molecules in the sample.
The Gamma-Ray Imaging Spectrometer (GRIS) is a scientific instrument designed to detect and analyze gamma-ray emissions from various sources, such as astronomical objects, planetary bodies, and terrestrial environments. These emissions can provide valuable information about the composition, structure, and processes occurring in the observed phenomena. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation emitted by radioactive materials and certain cosmic events; they have very high energy.
A gamma-ray spectrometer is an instrument used to measure and analyze gamma radiation emitted by materials. Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation that can originate from radioactive decay, nuclear reactions, or cosmic events. The primary purpose of a gamma-ray spectrometer is to detect and quantify gamma rays, often to identify the specific isotopes and their concentrations in a sample.
The Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS) aboard the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft is an instrument designed to study the composition of the Martian surface and to assess the planet's geology and mineralogy. Launched on April 7, 2001, and arriving at Mars on October 24, 2001, the Mars Odyssey orbiter carries the GRS as one of its primary scientific instruments.
Gammasphere is a sophisticated gamma-ray detection system used in nuclear and particle physics research. It is primarily designed to study the structure of atomic nuclei by detecting the gamma rays emitted during nuclear reactions and decays. The system consists of an array of high-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors that are arranged in a spherical configuration, allowing for efficient detection of gamma radiation from various angles.
A General Antiparticle Spectrometer (GAS) typically refers to a type of scientific instrument used in particle physics and astrophysics to detect and analyze antiparticles. Antiparticles are the counterparts to ordinary particles; they have the same mass as particles but opposite charge and other quantum numbers. For instance, the antiparticle of an electron is a positron.
The Geostationary Carbon Cycle Observatory (GCCO) is an initiative that aims to improve the understanding and monitoring of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gas emissions and their sources. This observatory employs geostationary satellites, which remain in a fixed position relative to the Earth, allowing them to continuously observe specific regions over time.
Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk (GOLD) is a NASA mission aimed at studying the Earth's upper atmosphere, particularly the region known as the ionosphere and the thermosphere. Launched on January 25, 2018, aboard an experimental satellite called the International Space Station (ISS), GOLD's primary objective is to obtain detailed observations of the Earth's limb and disk, which means the edge and the surface of the Earth as seen from space.
GlueX, or the Glue Hyperon Experiment, is a particle physics experiment that aims to investigate the structure of nucleons (protons and neutrons) and the fundamental forces involved in their interactions. The experiment is conducted at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (JLab) in Newport News, Virginia. It uses a high-intensity photon beam produced by a 12 GeV electron accelerator to produce a wide variety of particles through photon-nucleon interactions.
A Helical Orbit Spectrometer is a type of spectroscopic instrument that uses a helical orbit to analyze the composition and structure of materials, often in the context of atomic or molecular studies. This design allows for the efficient separation and measurement of different wavelengths of light emitted, absorbed, or scattered by a sample. The helical orbit refers to the path taken by charged particles (like electrons) as they are influenced by magnetic and electric fields.
An imaging spectrometer is a sophisticated optical instrument used to capture image data at many different wavelengths across the electromagnetic spectrum. By combining the functionalities of both imaging and spectroscopy, it allows scientists and researchers to obtain detailed spectral information for each pixel of an image, enabling them to analyze the composition and properties of materials.
The K-band Multi-Object Spectrograph (KMOS) is an astronomical instrument designed to obtain spectra from multiple astronomical objects simultaneously in the K-band of the near-infrared spectrum, which spans wavelengths from approximately 1.95 to 2.45 micrometers. KMOS is usually mounted on large ground-based telescopes, such as the Very Large Telescope (VLT) in Chile.
MERIS, or the Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer, is an instrument that was primarily used aboard the European Space Agency's Envisat satellite, which was launched in 2002. MERIS was designed for Earth observation, and its main purpose was to monitor the Earth's land, oceans, and atmosphere at medium spatial resolution.
MIMOS II refers to the Malaysian Institute of Microelectronics Systems II, which is a significant initiative in Malaysia aimed at advancing research, development, and innovation in the field of microelectronics and related technology. The MIMOS II project is part of Malaysia's broader efforts to develop its indigenous capabilities in semiconductor technologies and to promote research in areas such as microelectronics, materials science, and nanotechnology.
A Magnetic Proton Recoil Neutron Spectrometer (MPRNS) is a type of neutron detection instrument used primarily in neutron scattering experiments and nuclear physics research. It is specifically designed to measure and analyze the energies of neutrons by detecting the recoil of protons that result from neutron interactions. ### Key Features of MPRNS: 1. **Detection Principle**: The MPRNS works on the principle of neutron scattering.
Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical technique used to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. It is a powerful tool for identifying and quantifying molecules in a sample, characterizing chemical compounds, and determining molecular structures. The process of mass spectrometry generally involves the following steps: 1. **Ionization**: The sample is converted into ions, which can be positive or negative.
Mini-TES, or Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer, is a scientific instrument designed to analyze the mineral composition of planetary surfaces by measuring thermal infrared radiation. It was specifically developed for use on Mars rovers, such as the Spirit and Opportunity rovers, which were part of NASA's Mars Exploration Rover mission. The Mini-TES works by detecting the thermal emission from the surface materials as they are heated by the Sun.
The Multi-Unit Spectroscopic Explorer (MUSE) is an advanced astronomical instrument utilized at the Very Large Telescope (VLT) at the Paranal Observatory in Chile, operated by the European Southern Observatory (ESO). MUSE is a integral field spectrograph designed for wide-field observations of astronomical objects across a range of wavelengths, typically covering the visible and near-infrared parts of the spectrum.
The Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NIRCam) is an instrument on the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which was launched by NASA in December 2021. NIRCam is designed to observe the universe in the near-infrared spectrum, which ranges from about 0.6 to 5 micrometers.
Odin-OSIRIS is a satellite mission that is part of a larger effort to enhance our understanding of the Earth's atmosphere and climate. Launched in November 2021, OSIRIS (Optical Spectrograph and Infrared Imager System) is designed to monitor atmospheric conditions, track pollution, and study climate variables on a global scale.
The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 (OCO-3) is a satellite mission developed by NASA specifically designed to monitor and measure carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations in Earth's atmosphere. It is an advanced version of the original Orbiting Carbon Observatory, which was lost shortly after launch in 2009. OCO-3 was launched on May 4, 2019, and is mounted on the International Space Station (ISS).
The Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) is a satellite-based instrument designed to monitor the Earth's atmosphere, specifically focusing on ozone levels and other atmospheric constituents. It was launched aboard NASA's Aura satellite in July 2004. The primary objectives of OMI include: 1. **Ozone Monitoring**: OMI measures both tropospheric and stratospheric ozone levels, providing valuable data to understand the distribution and changes in atmospheric ozone, which is crucial for both environmental health and climate studies.
PERDaix is a software tool developed for the analysis of epidemic models. Its primary function is to provide researchers and epidemiologists with capabilities for simulating and analyzing the dynamics of infectious diseases. This tool may include features for parameter estimation, model fitting, and visualization of simulation outcomes.
The Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) is an instrument designed for the analysis of planetary atmospheres. It utilizes Fourier transform spectroscopy principles to measure the infrared spectra of planetary atmospheres and surfaces. The PFS can capture a wide range of wavelengths simultaneously, making it efficient in detecting various molecular signatures present in the atmosphere, such as gases and particles.
A Prism Spectrometer is an optical instrument used to analyze the spectral composition of light. It utilizes a prism to disperse light into its constituent colors (spectrum) based on wavelength. The basic components of a prism spectrometer include: 1. **Light Source**: This can be any source of light, such as a lamp, that emits light to be analyzed. 2. **Prism**: The key component that refracts light.
A push broom scanner is a type of optical imaging system used primarily in remote sensing and aerial imaging. Unlike traditional scanners that use a moving mechanism to capture images line-by-line, a push broom scanner captures an entire line of data simultaneously. Hereâs how it works: ### Key Features of Push Broom Scanners: 1. **Linear Array**: Push broom scanners use a linear array of sensors (often CCD or CMOS sensors) arranged in a line.
SCIAMACHY, which stands for SCanning Imaging Absorption spectroMeter for Atmospheric CHartographY, is an instrument that was launched aboard the European Space Agency's (ESA) ENVISAT satellite in March 2002. The primary purpose of SCIAMACHY is to measure the Earth's atmospheric composition and monitor various trace gases, aerosols, and other atmospheric constituents through spectral analysis.
Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC) is a scientific instrument developed for the study of Mars, primarily onboard NASA's Perseverance rover, which was launched in July 2020 and landed on Mars in February 2021. SHERLOC's primary goal is to identify and characterize organic compounds and potential biosignaturesâsigns of past or present lifeâwithin Martian surface materials.
A scintillation counter is a device used to detect and measure ionizing radiation, such as alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. It operates on the principle of scintillationâthe process by which certain materials emit flashes of light (photons) when they absorb ionizing radiation. ### Key Components of a Scintillation Counter: 1. **Scintillator**: This is the key component that emits light when it interacts with ionizing radiation.
The Special Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager (SUVI) is an instrument onboard the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) series. SUVI is designed to monitor and observe the Earth's atmosphere, primarily focusing on the upper atmosphere (the limb), which is the edge of the atmosphere as seen from space.
A spectrofluorometer is an analytical instrument used to measure the fluorescence properties of samples. It works by emitting light of a specific wavelength to excite the electrons in fluorescent molecules within a sample, causing them to emit light at a different wavelength. The emitted fluorescence can provide valuable information about the sample's composition, concentration, and molecular structure.
A spectrometer is an analytical instrument used to measure and analyze the properties of light across a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. It can be used to identify materials, determine their concentration, and analyze the structure of molecules by observing their interaction with light. Spectrometers work by dispersing light into its component wavelengths (spectrum) and measuring the intensity of light at each wavelength.
The Spectronic 20 is a type of spectrophotometer, a laboratory instrument used to measure the amount of light absorbed by a sample at specific wavelengths. This device is particularly useful in chemistry and biology for analyzing the concentration of solutes in solution by measuring absorbance, which follows Beer-Lambert's law.
The Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) is an instrument designed to measure thermal infrared radiation emitted from planetary surfaces and atmospheres. It is typically used in planetary science missions to analyze the composition and physical properties of planetary materials. ### Key Features and Functions of TES: 1. **Spectroscopy**: TES operates on the principle of spectroscopy, which involves measuring the intensity of infrared light at various wavelengths. This allows scientists to identify specific minerals and chemical compounds based on their spectral signatures.
The Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) is an instrument designed to measure the amount of ozone in the Earth's atmosphere. It was developed to monitor and assess changes in the ozone layer, which is crucial for protecting life on Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Here are some key points about the TOMS: 1. **Function**: TOMS measures the total column ozone from the Earth's surface to the top of the atmosphere.
A tristimulus colorimeter is an instrument used to measure the color of a surface or an object by quantifying its color components based on the human visual perception model. Tristimulus refers to the fact that the color measurement is based on three primary color components, typically red, green, and blue (RGB). These color components correspond to the three types of cone cells in human eyes that are responsible for color vision.
The Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer (TES) is an instrument designed to measure various atmospheric gases, including greenhouse gases, air pollutants, and other trace constituents in the troposphere, which is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. Launched aboard the Aura satellite in July 2004 as part of NASA's Earth Observation System, TES uses infrared spectroscopy to analyze the composition of the atmosphere.
Tropospheric Emissions: Monitoring of Pollution (TEMPO) is a satellite-based mission initiated by NASA to monitor air quality and track pollutants in the Earth's atmosphere, specifically in the troposphere, which is the lowest layer of the atmosphere where most weather events occur and where human activities contribute significantly to air pollution.
The Venus Emissivity Mapper (VEM) is an instrument designed to study Venus, particularly its surface composition and geology. Part of NASA's upcoming VERITAS (Venus Emissivity, Radio Science, InSAR, Topography, and Spectroscopy) mission, VEM will utilize advanced infrared spectroscopy to analyze the thermal emissions from the planet's surface.
Spectroscopists are scientists and researchers who specialize in the field of spectroscopy, which is the study of how matter interacts with electromagnetic radiation. This interaction typically involves measuring the absorption, emission, or scattering of light and other radiation to analyze the characteristics of substances. Spectroscopists use various spectroscopic techniques to identify chemical compounds, determine molecular structures, assess concentrations, and investigate the physical properties of materials.
Ahmed Zewail was an Egyptian-American scientist, known for his pioneering work in the field of femtochemistry, which involves the study of chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, typically in the femtosecond range (one quadrillionth of a second). Born on February 26, 1946, in Damanhur, Egypt, Zewail received his undergraduate degree from Alexandria University and later obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1974.
Aleksander JabĆoĆski is a notable figure primarily in the fields of photophysics and photochemistry. The JabĆoĆski diagram, named after him, is a crucial tool in understanding the electronic states of molecules, particularly regarding their excitation and relaxation processes. This diagram illustrates the transitions between different energy levels of a molecule, including singlet and triplet states, and it is widely used to explain phenomena such as fluorescence and phosphorescence.
Alexander Edgar Douglas is likely a reference to Sir Alexander Douglas, a Scottish politician and businessman. However, without more context, it is difficult to provide a precise answer, as "Alexander Edgar Douglas" might not be a widely recognized figure in popular culture or history as of my last knowledge update in October 2021.
Alfred Gordon Gaydon does not appear to be a widely recognized figure or term as of my last knowledge update in October 2023. It's possible that he could be a lesser-known individual, perhaps in a niche field, or this could be a name that emerged after my last update.
Alfred Kastler (1902-1984) was a French physicist known for his significant contributions to the field of laser physics and atomic spectroscopy. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1966 for his work on the optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms, which laid the groundwork for various laser technologies. Kastler's research focused on the interaction between light and matter, and he developed techniques for manipulating and analyzing atomic energy levels using light.
Alfred Maddock does not appear to be a widely recognized public figure, character, or concept based on available information up to October 2023. It is possible that he may be a private individual, or he may have gained prominence after that date.
Alfred Msezane is not widely known in popular culture or history, so there may be limited context available regarding him.
Anders Jonas Ă
ngström (1814â1874) was a Swedish physicist and astronomer known for his significant contributions to the field of spectroscopy and the study of light. He is best recognized for his work in measuring the wavelengths of various spectral lines and for founding the science of spectrometry. Ă
ngström is particularly noted for his studies of the spectrum of light emitted by different elements, which laid the groundwork for modern spectroscopy.
Andrea Russell may refer to various individuals, depending on the context. Without additional details, it's unclear to whom you are specifically referring. Here are a few possibilities: 1. **Andrea Russell (Athlete)** - Could refer to an athlete in various sports, though specific information would be needed to provide context on their achievements. 2. **Andrea Russell (Academic)** - Might refer to a scholar or professional in academia, research, or other fields.
Andreas Albrecht is a chemist known for his contributions to the field of chemistry, particularly in the area of organic synthesis and catalysis. He has been involved in various research projects and has published numerous academic papers. Albrecht's work often focuses on developing new synthetic methods and understanding reaction mechanisms.
Andreas Albrecht is a theoretical physicist and cosmologist known for his work in several areas of cosmology and theoretical physics. He has made significant contributions to our understanding of the early universe, inflationary cosmology, and the large-scale structure of the cosmos. One of Albrecht's notable contributions is his role in the development and promotion of the inflationary universe model, which suggests that the universe underwent an extremely rapid expansion in its earliest moments.
"Anne Thorne" could refer to different subjects depending on the context, as it is not a widely recognized name associated with a specific topic or person. It could refer to a fictional character, an author, an artist, or even a historical figure whose name is not commonly known.
Antony Hewish is a British astrophysicist known primarily for his work in radio astronomy. He was born on May 11, 1924. Hewish is most famous for his role in the discovery of pulsars, which are highly magnetized, rotating neutron stars that emit beams of electromagnetic radiation.
Arthur Compton (1892â1962) was an American experimental physicist best known for his work in the field of X-ray and gamma-ray physics. He is most renowned for the discovery of the Compton effect, which demonstrates the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation. This effect describes how X-rays or gamma rays collide with electrons, resulting in a change in the wavelength of the radiation, which provides evidence for the dual wave-particle nature of light.
Arthur John Ahearn is not widely recognized as a notable figure in common historical or cultural contexts up to my last training cut-off in October 2021. It's possible he could be a person of local renown, or he may have gained recognition in specific fields after that date.
Arthur Leonard Schawlow (1921-2019) was an American physicist who is best known for his contributions to the field of laser technology. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1981, along with Nicolaas Bloembergen and Kai Siegbahn, for their work in the development of laser spectroscopy, a technique that uses lasers to analyze the properties of materials.
August Hagenbach was a notable Swiss painter born in 1820 and passed away in 1869. He is known for his contributions to the German Romantic movement, particularly in landscape painting. Hagenbach's work often features evocative depictions of nature and the Swiss countryside, characterized by a strong sense of atmosphere and emotion. His paintings have been appreciated for their artistic depth and technique, often blending realism with romantic idealism.
August Herman Pfund (1859â1942) was a notable American physicist, particularly known for his contributions to the field of optics and the study of diffraction and interference of light. He is recognized for developing the Pfund curve, which relates to the optical properties of materials. Additionally, he made significant strides in spectrophotometry and was involved in research that helped advance the understanding of light and color.
Barbara H. Stuart may refer to a specific individual, but without additional context, it's difficult to provide accurate information. There may be multiple people with that name across various fields or professions. If you could provide more details about who Barbara H.
Bertram Brockhouse (1918-2019) was a Canadian physicist known for his significant contributions to the field of condensed matter physics. He is best recognized for developing techniques in neutron scattering, which are essential for studying the properties of materials at the atomic level. In 1994, Brockhouse was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, sharing the honor with Clifford G. Shull, for their work on the development of neutron scattering techniques for the investigation of condensed matter.
Bill Price is a physicist known for his work in the field of experimental physics. He has made contributions to areas such as quantum mechanics, solid-state physics, and other related topics. However, there might not be extensive public information available about him compared to more widely recognized figures in physics. For specific achievements or publications, further context or details about his work would be helpful.
Brian Orr could refer to various individuals, but one prominent figure is Brian Orr, the co-founder of the HVAC School, which provides education and training resources for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning professionals. He is known for his contributions to the HVAC industry through online courses, podcasts, and articles aimed at helping technicians improve their skills and knowledge.
Brooks Pate is a name associated with a scientist and professor known for his work in the fields of chemistry and materials science. He is particularly recognized for his research involving the development of new materials and the study of their properties. His contributions often involve advanced techniques in spectroscopy and molecular imaging.
C. V. Raman, or Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, was an eminent Indian physicist known for his pioneering work in the field of light scattering. He was born on November 7, 1888, in Tiruchirappalli, India, and passed away on November 21, 1970. Raman is best known for the discovery of the Raman Effect, which is the inelastic scattering of light when it passes through a medium.
Carl Runge (1856-1927) was a prominent German mathematician and physicist known for his contributions to numerical analysis and differential equations. He is most famous for the Runge-Kutta methods, which are a family of iterative methods used for solving ordinary differential equations. These methods are widely used due to their effectiveness and simplicity. In addition to numerical analysis, Runge also worked in various areas of applied mathematics and made contributions to fields such as mathematical physics and approximation theory.
Carlos Jaschek is a prominent Argentine astronomer known for his contributions to the field of astrophysics and stellar dynamics. He has been involved in various significant research projects, primarily focusing on the study of stars and their characteristics. Jaschek is also recognized for his work in promoting astronomy education and outreach. Additionally, he has authored or co-authored several scientific papers and books on topics related to stars and stellar evolution.
Charles Glover Barkla (1877â1944) was a British physicist known for his work in the field of X-ray spectroscopy. He is particularly recognized for his discovery of characteristic X-rays, which are specific to the elements and provide important information about the composition of materials. In 1917, Barkla was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his experiments demonstrating the existence of X-ray properties related to the atomic structure of elements.
Charles H. Townes (1915-2015) was an American physicist best known for his pioneering work in the development of the laser and maser (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation). He shared the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics with Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov for their contributions to the field of quantum electronics.
Charles Wheatstone (1802â1875) was an English scientist and inventor best known for his contributions to the field of electrical engineering and for his work in the development of the Wheatstone bridge, a device used to measure electrical resistance. The Wheatstone bridge significantly advanced the field of electrical measurement and is still used in various applications today. Wheatstone was also involved in the development of the telegraph and made foundational contributions to acoustics and the understanding of the piano's harmonic qualities.
Christiane Bonnelle is not a widely recognized figure in popular culture or academia, and there may not be detailed, publicly available information about her. It's possible that she could be a private individual, a professional in a specific field, or someone who gained attention in a particular context that isnât broadly documented.
Cynthia Jameson does not appear to be a widely recognized public figure or term as of my last update in October 2023. It's possible that she could be a private individual or a local figure not covered in mainstream sources.
David Alter could refer to several individuals or topics, but one notable context in which the name appears is in the realm of academia and research, particularly within the fields of psychology, public health, or related disciplines. Without more specific context regarding the field or area of interest associated with "David Alter," it's challenging to provide a precise answer.
David Rank is a name that may refer to various individuals or entities, but without specific context, it's challenging to provide a precise answer. One prominent figure associated with the name is David Rank, a former U.S. diplomat who served as the Deputy Chief of Mission at the U.S. Embassy in Nepal. He is known for his views on U.S. foreign policy and his advocacy for civil rights and democracy. If you were referring to a different David Rank or a specific context (e.g.
Derek Jackson is a relationship expert, author, and social media influencer known for his advice on dating, relationships, and self-improvement. He gained significant popularity through his motivational videos and posts, often addressing topics related to love, self-worth, and personal growth. Jackson is also known for his candid discussions about his own relationships and experiences, which resonated with many of his followers.
"Derek Long" could refer to a variety of individuals or subjects depending on the context, including personal names in academia, business, or entertainment. Without specific details, it's challenging to provide accurate information.
Edgar Bright Wilson (1896â1974) was an American physicist known for his work in various fields, including atomic and molecular physics. He was particularly notable for his contributions to the study of molecular spectra and the development of methods in spectroscopy. Wilson was also involved in various academic and educational initiatives, contributing to the advancement of physics as a discipline.
Edward Robert Festing is a well-known British painter, primarily recognized for his traditional figurative and portraiture works. His style often reflects classical techniques and subjects, showcasing a deep appreciation for art history. He has gained recognition in contemporary art circles and has participated in various exhibitions.
Ernst Friedrich Wilhelm Miescher (1844 â 1895) was a Swiss biochemist best known for his discovery of nucleic acids. In the late 1860s, he isolated a substance from the nuclei of white blood cells, which he named "nuclein." This substance was later identified as DNA, although at the time its significance was not fully understood.
Franco Rasetti (1901â2001) was an Italian physicist known for his work in the field of nuclear physics and his contributions to the development of quantum mechanics. He was one of the early collaborators with Enrico Fermi and played a significant role in Fermi's group on nuclear research. Rasetti's research included studies on the properties of atomic nuclei and he was involved in pivotal experiments that contributed to the understanding of nuclear structure and reactions.
Frederick Sumner Brackett (1860-1942) was an American scientist known for his contributions to the field of agronomy and plant physiology. He is particularly noted for his research on plant nutrition and soil chemistry, which helped enhance agricultural practices and improve crop yields. Brackett's work has influenced how scientists and farmers understand the relationship between soil properties and plant growth.
G. Michael Bancroft appears to refer to an individual, but there might be multiple people with that name, and without a specific context, it is difficult to provide accurate information. If you are looking for information on a particular G.
Galina Khitrova is a name that may refer to a variety of subjects, but it is not a widely recognized name in popular culture, literature, or notable historical contexts. If you can provide more context or specify what you're looking for related to Galina Khitrova, such as whether it's related to a specific field (e.g.
Gary E. Martin could refer to multiple individuals, depending on the context. Without more specific information, it is challenging to determine exactly who you are referencing. For example, he might be an author, academic, or professional associated with a particular field.
George C. Pimentel (1922â2007) was an American chemist known for his contributions to the field of chemistry, particularly in molecular spectroscopy and chemical education. He made significant advancements in the study of infrared spectroscopy and played a crucial role in developing new techniques and instruments for analyzing molecular structures. Pimentel was a prominent figure in academia and served on the faculty at the University of California, Berkeley. He was also involved in promoting science education and public understanding of chemistry.
George Downing Liveing was a notable English physicist and luminary in the field of optics and spectroscopy. He was born in 1827 and passed away in 1924. Liveing contributed significantly to the study of atomic spectra and the understanding of how light interacts with matter. His work has influenced various applications in the realm of physics and engineering, particularly in the development of spectroscopic techniques.
George W. Flynn could refer to various individuals, but without specific context, it is hard to pinpoint exactly who you are referring to. There may be individuals by that name in various fields such as academia, politics, or the military. If you have a specific context, such as a particular profession or event related to George W.
Gerhard Herzberg (1904-1999) was a renowned German-born Canadian physicist and chemist who made significant contributions to the field of molecular spectroscopy. He is best known for his work on the structure of molecules and the behavior of atoms in various states. Herzberg's research helped to elucidate the electronic structure of diatomic and polyatomic molecules, and he developed techniques for studying how these molecules interact with light.
Giacinto Scoles is a prominent figure in the field of mathematics, particularly known for his contributions to functional analysis, spectral theory, and the theory of operator algebras. He has published numerous papers and developed various results that are significant in these areas.
Graham Fleming is a notable figure in the field of chemistry, particularly known for his work in physical chemistry and ultrafast spectroscopy. He has made significant contributions to the understanding of electronic processes in molecules and materials. In addition to his research contributions, he has held academic and administrative positions at various institutions.
Harry Hallam is an academic known for his contributions in the field of education, particularly in areas related to curriculum studies, educational policy, and pedagogy. He may have published research papers, articles, or books that explore various aspects of education, including teaching practices, educational theory, and the implications of policy decisions on educational institutions.
Harry Kroto was a distinguished British chemist who is best known for his discovery of fullerenes, a class of carbon molecules that include C60, often referred to as "buckminsterfullerene" or "buckyballs." He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996, along with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley, for their work on the synthesis and properties of these molecules. Kroto's research contributed significantly to the field of nanotechnology and materials science.
Heinrich Kayser (1853â1940) was a German physicist and acoustician known for his work in the field of acoustics, particularly in the study of musical tones and the theory of sound. He made significant contributions to the understanding of how sound waves interact with various media and is recognized for developing the concept of "sound colors" or the timbre of musical instruments. His research helped lay the groundwork for later developments in both acoustics and music theory.
Henry Fox Talbot was a British scientist, inventor, and photography pioneer, best known for his contributions to the development of photography in the 19th century. Born on February 11, 1800, Talbot was one of the first to create a method for producing photographs using a chemical process. In 1834, he developed a technique called "calotype," which involved the use of paper coated with silver iodide to create a latent image that could be developed into a negative.
Herbert L. Strauss is not widely recognized in prominent historical or contemporary contexts, and there may be limited information available about him depending on the specific field or context you are referring to. If you meant a specific individual with contributions in a particular area (e.g., academia, research, literature), please provide more context or details.
Hrvoje Petek is a notable physicist, particularly recognized for his work in the fields of experimental condensed matter physics and materials science. He has made significant contributions to the understanding of the electronic properties of materials, particularly using techniques such as laser spectroscopy and electron microscopy. Throughout his career, Petek has been involved in researching topics such as ultrafast phenomena in solids and the development of novel materials with unique properties.
Huib Bakker is a name that could refer to various individuals, but without additional context, it's difficult to provide specific information.
Isidor Isaac Rabi (1898â1988) was an influential American physicist best known for his work in the field of atomic and nuclear physics. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1944 for his invention of the method of resonance, which is a technique used to measure the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei. Rabi's contributions also played a significant role in the development of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and various applications in quantum mechanics.
James Franck (1882â1964) was a German physicist who is best known for his work in atomic and molecular physics. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1925, alongside Gustav Hertz, for their experiments demonstrating the behavior of electrons in atoms, which contributed significantly to the understanding of quantum mechanics. Franck's most notable contribution was the Franck-Hertz experiment, which provided evidence for the quantized nature of atomic energy levels.
James Kay Graham Watson does not appear to be a widely recognized or notable figure based on the information available up to October 2023. It's possible that you may be referring to an individual who is not well-documented in public sources, or there might be a mix-up in the name.
James L. Kinsey is not widely recognized as a public figure or a concept that has significant notoriety in historical, cultural, or scientific contexts.
James W. Brault appears to be either a person or a name associated with a specific context, but without additional details, it's difficult to pinpoint exactly who or what you are referring to. If you could provide more contextâsuch as whether you are referring to a specific field (like science, arts, literature, etc.
As of my last knowledge update in October 2021, there is no widely recognized public figure or event associated with the name Jane Blankenship. Itâs possible that she could be a private individual, a local figure, or someone who has gained prominence after that date.
Janina Kneipp is a contemporary figure known for her work in the field of wellness, particularly in relation to natural healing and holistic health practices. She is often associated with the Kneipp philosophy, which is based on the principles developed by Sebastian Kneipp, a 19th-century priest and naturopath. These principles focus on water therapy, herbal remedies, nutrition, exercise, and balance in life.
Janine Connes is a prominent French mathematician known for her contributions to functional analysis, noncommutative geometry, and mathematical physics. She has made significant advances in the study of operator algebras and has worked extensively on the theory of von Neumann algebras and their applications. Connes is well-known for her work related to the spectral properties of operators and has received numerous awards for her research. She is also recognized for her efforts to promote mathematics and mathematics education.
Jean Lecomte could refer to different individuals, particularly because "Lecomte" is a relatively common French surname. One notable figure is Jean Lecomte, a French painter known for his works in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He was associated with the academic art movement and created various historical and genre paintings.
Jeanette Grasselli Brown is a well-known chemist and educator notable for her contributions to the field of chemistry and her efforts to promote science education. She is recognized for her work in the area of chemical education and has served in various academic and leadership roles throughout her career. Additionally, she has been involved in promoting the involvement of women and underrepresented groups in the sciences. Brown has received various awards for her achievements and has made significant contributions to both research and teaching in the discipline of chemistry.
Jim Otvos does not appear to be a widely recognized public figure or term as of my last knowledge update in October 2023. It's possible that Jim Otvos could refer to a private individual, a niche professional, or a name not widely covered in mainstream media or literature.
Johann Jakob Balmer (1825â1898) was a Swiss mathematician and physicist best known for his work in the field of spectroscopy and for formulating the Balmer series, which describes the wavelengths of light emitted by hydrogen atoms. In 1885, Balmer derived a simple mathematical formula that accurately predicts the wavelengths of the visible spectral lines of hydrogen.
Johannes Rydberg was a Swedish physicist known for his work in the field of spectroscopy. He is most famous for formulating the Rydberg formula, which describes the wavelengths of spectral lines of hydrogen. The Rydberg formula laid the groundwork for understanding atomic spectra and is integral to quantum mechanics. His contributions helped to establish the field of atomic physics, and his work provided a crucial link between classical physics and the later development of quantum mechanics.
Johannes Stark (1874â1957) was a German physicist known for his work in the field of experimental physics. He is especially recognized for his research in the areas of atomic and molecular spectroscopy. One of his most notable contributions is the Stark effect, which describes the splitting of spectral lines of atoms and molecules in an external electric field. This effect is significant in the study of the behavior of atoms in electric fields and has various applications in physics and chemistry.
John Browning was a notable scientific instrument maker active during the 17th century. He is recognized for his craftsmanship and contributions to the field of scientific instrumentation, particularly in the area of telescopes and other optical devices. Browning was known for producing high-quality instruments that were used for various scientific observations and research.
John Howard is an optical physicist known for his contributions to the field of optics and photonics. His work has often focused on areas such as laser technology, imaging systems, and the development of optical materials. Specific details about his research contributions, publications, or institutional affiliations may vary, so for the most accurate and up-to-date information, it's best to consult academic databases or professional publications related to optics and photonics.
John J. Hopfield is an American physicist and a prominent figure known for his contributions to the fields of biophysics and spectroscopy. His work has encompassed various areas, including the development of theoretical frameworks and experimental techniques that enhance our understanding of molecular interactions and dynamics through spectroscopic methods. Hopfield's research has contributed significantly to the understanding of how biomolecules interact with light and how these interactions can be used to probe molecular structures and dynamics.
John L. Hall is an American physicist known for his contributions to the field of laser physics and precision measurement. He is particularly famous for his work in the development of frequency combs, which are tools used to measure the frequencies of light with high precision. This innovation has applications in various fields, including telecommunications, spectroscopy, and the development of highly accurate atomic clocks. In 2005, John L. Hall was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, along with Theodor W.
John Simons is a notable chemist known for his work in the field of electrochemistry. He is particularly recognized for his contributions to the study of ionic liquids and their applications. His research has significantly impacted areas such as physical chemistry, materials science, and even energy storage. One of his key contributions includes the development of techniques for characterizing ionic liquids, as well as understanding their properties and behaviors at the molecular level.
Jonathan Sarfati is a New Zealand mathematician, physicist, and creationist, known for his work with Answers in Genesis (AiG), an organization that promotes a literal interpretation of the Bible, particularly in relation to the creation account in Genesis. He has authored several books and articles on creationism and has been active in debates and discussions regarding evolution and the science-religion interface.
Joseph von Fraunhofer (1787â1826) was a German physicist and optical engineer who made significant contributions to the field of optics. He is best known for his work in the development of high-quality optical instruments, particularly telescopes and microscopes. Fraunhofer is especially renowned for his discovery of the Fraunhofer linesâdark lines in the solar spectrum that result from the absorption of specific wavelengths of light by elements in the Sun's atmosphere.
Kai Siegbahn is a notable figure in the field of physics, particularly recognized for his work in the area of electron spectroscopy. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1981 for his contributions to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy, a technique used for analyzing the electronic structure of materials. This technique has been significant in studying surfaces and interfaces at the atomic level, which has applications in various scientific disciplines, including chemistry and materials science.
Kevin K. Lehmann is a German entrepreneur and heir known for his significant wealth and status as a billionaire. He is notably recognized for being one of the youngest billionaires in the world, primarily due to his inheritance from his father, Guenther Lehmann, who is the founder of dm-drogerie markt, a large drugstore chain in Germany. Kevin is involved in various business ventures and investments and has gained attention for his entrepreneurial activities as well as his philanthropic efforts.
As of my last update in October 2023, there isn't a widely recognized figure, entity, or term specifically known as "Lester Andrews." It could refer to a person not in the public eye, a fictional character, or something more niche.
Ljubov Rebane does not appear to refer to a widely recognized concept, person, or entity in my knowledge base up to October 2023. It might be a name, possibly of an individual, but without more context, it's difficult to provide specific information.
Lucia Reining is a physicist known for her work in the field of computational materials science and quantum mechanics. She has contributed significantly to the understanding of electronic structure methods, particularly in the context of many-body systems and the application of advanced computational techniques in materials modeling. Reining's research often focuses on developing and applying methods to study properties of materials at the atomic level, including phenomena related to electronic correlations and excitations.
Manne Siegbahn was a prominent Swedish physicist known for his work in the field of spectroscopy and experimental physics. Born on December 3, 1886, he made significant contributions to the understanding of X-ray spectroscopy and radiation. Siegbahn was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1924 for his research on the diffraction of X-rays and the development of new spectroscopic techniques.
Manuel Cardona is a renowned Spanish physicist known for his contributions to condensed matter physics, particularly in the fields of semiconductor physics and nanotechnology. He has made significant advancements in understanding the electronic properties of materials and their applications in various technologies.
Margaret Lindsay Huggins (1848â1915) was a notable British astronomer known for her contributions to astrophotography and spectroscopy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. She was particularly recognized for her work in capturing images of celestial objects and her research on the spectra of stars. Huggins collaborated closely with her husband, William Huggins, who was also an accomplished astronomer.
Marianus Czerny is a notable figure in the field of classical music, particularly known for his contributions as a composer and music educator. However, there may be some confusion, as there are other individuals with the name Czerny, such as Carl Czerny, who was a prominent Austrian composer and pianist known primarily for his pedagogical works for piano.
Mark A. Johnson is a common name and could refer to several individuals in various fields, such as academia, business, or the arts. Without specific context, it's difficult to determine exactly which Mark A. Johnson you are inquiring about.
As of my last update in October 2023, "Martin Quack" does not refer to any widely recognized concept, person, or entity. It might be a specific reference, character, or term that has emerged more recently or in a niche context.
Martin Ryle was a renowned British radio astronomer, best known for his pioneering contributions to the field of astrophysics and for developing techniques that advanced radio telescope technology. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1974, along with Antony Hewish, for their work in the field of radio astronomy, particularly for their contributions to the development of a new type of telescope that allowed for the study of celestial objects.
As of my last knowledge update in October 2021, Martin Suhm is a theoretical physicist known for his work in the field of condensed matter physics and quantum information. He has conducted research on various complex systems, including quantum many-body systems and the mathematical aspects of quantum mechanics.
As of my last knowledge update in October 2023, I don't have specific information on an individual named Matthew Pothen Thekaekara. It's possible he is a private individual, a public figure, or someone who has emerged after that date.
Michael Kasha was a prominent American chemist known for his significant contributions to the fields of photochemistry and molecular spectroscopy. Born on February 2, 1920, Kasha is best known for Kasha's Rule, which describes the efficiency of energy transfer in excited states of molecules, particularly in relation to fluorescence and phosphorescence. His work has had a profound impact on understanding the behavior of excited states in various chemical systems.
Michael Morris is an oceanographer known for his research in marine sciences, specifically in the areas of ocean circulation, climate dynamics, and the impact of environmental changes on marine ecosystems. He may be involved in various studies related to oceanographic data collection, modeling, and analysis. His work can contribute to our understanding of climate change, ocean health, and the interconnectedness of ocean systems.
Miguel A. CatalĂĄn could refer to various individuals or topics, depending on the context. However, there isn't a widely known figure or concept by that exact name as of my last knowledge update in October 2023.
As of my last update in October 2023, Munira Khalil does not appear to be a widely recognized public figure, concept, or term in major contexts like politics, literature, science, or culture. It's possible that she could be a notable individual in a specific community or field, but there may not be significant information available about her on broad platforms.
Nicolaas Bloembergen was a Dutch physicist known for his work in the field of laser science and spectroscopy. Born on March 11, 1920, he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1981, along with Arthur Leonard Schawlow and Kai M. Ziegler, for their contributions to the development of laser technology. Bloembergen's research significantly advanced the understanding of light-matter interactions and the development of various spectroscopic techniques.
Nikolay Basov (1922-2001) was a prominent Soviet physicist known for his significant contributions to the fields of quantum electronics and laser technology. He, along with Alexander Prokhorov, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 for their work on the theory and application of masers and lasers, which are devices that amplify electromagnetic waves.
Nishtala Appala Narasimham (also known as N. A. Narasimham) is an Indian political figure and businessman known for his contributions to society and politics in Andhra Pradesh. He is often recognized for his involvement in local governance, social work, and business initiatives. His name may be associated with various programs or initiatives aimed at community development, empowerment, and overall welfare in his region.
Noor Muhammad Butt is known as a Pakistani entrepreneur and social media influencer, particularly recognized for his videos showcasing various aspects of his life and culture. He often shares content related to his experiences, family, and lifestyle, which resonates with a wide audience. Videos featuring his humorous take on everyday situations have gained popularity, contributing to his presence on platforms like TikTok and Instagram.
Norman Lockyer (1836-1920) was a prominent British astronomer and physicist, best known for his pioneering work in the field of astrophysics. He is most famous for discovering the element helium in 1868, which he identified while studying the solar spectrum during a solar eclipse. Lockyer also made significant contributions to the study of spectral lines and the composition of stars, helping to establish the field of astronomical spectroscopy.
Peter Debye (1884-1966) was a Dutch-American physicist and chemist renowned for his contributions to the fields of physical chemistry and electrodynamics. He is best known for his work on the Debye model, which describes how dielectric materials respond to electric fields. He also investigated the behavior of polar molecules, leading to the introduction of the concept of the dipole moment and Debye temperature, which relates to specific heat capacities in solids.
Philip Bunker is not widely recognized as a prominent public figure, historical person, or concept based on the information available up to October 2023. It's possible that the name may refer to a specific individual who is not widely known, or it could relate to a context that has emerged after my last update.
Pierre Janssen, full name Pierre Jules CĂ©sar Janssen, was a French astronomer born on February 22, 1824, and he passed away on December 23, 1907. He is best known for his contributions to the field of spectroscopy and for his role in the discovery of the element helium. One of his significant achievements was the observation of a solar prominence during a total solar eclipse in 1868.
Pieter Zeeman (1865-1943) was a Dutch physicist best known for his discovery of the Zeeman Effect, which describes the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of a strong magnetic field. This phenomenon occurs because the energy levels of atomic electrons are affected by the magnetic field, resulting in the observed splitting of light into different frequencies.
R. J. Dwayne Miller is a prominent figure in the field of chemistry, particularly known for his work in the areas of ultrafast science and physical chemistry. He has made significant contributions to the understanding of chemical processes at very short time scales, often using techniques such as ultrafast spectroscopy. Miller has been involved in various research endeavors that explore the dynamics of molecular interactions, reactions, and the fundamental principles governing these processes.
Raymond Sheline was an American chemist and researcher known for his work in the fields of organic and polymer chemistry. Born in 1933, he contributed to advancements in chemical science, particularly through his research in areas such as chemical synthesis and the development of new materials. His work has had implications in various industries, including pharmaceuticals and materials science.
As of my last update in October 2021, Richard Alan Morton was not a widely recognized public figure, and I do not have any specific information about an individual by that name. It's possible that he could be a private individual, a lesser-known person, or someone who has risen to prominence after my last update.
Richard C. Lord could refer to various individuals, but without more specific context, it is difficult to provide a definitive answer.
Richard J. Saykally is a prominent American physical chemist known for his research in the areas of molecular spectroscopy and the study of water. He has made significant contributions to understanding the structure and dynamics of water molecules and has been involved in advanced studies of the molecular interactions in various environments. Saykally has been a faculty member at the University of California, Berkeley, where he has taught and mentored many students.
Richard McLean Badger is an artist known for his unique contributions in the field of contemporary art. He often engages with themes related to identity, nature, and the human experience through his work. He employs a variety of mediums, including painting and mixed media, to explore these themes.
Richard R. Ernst is a renowned Swiss chemist, best known for his pioneering work in the field of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1991 for his contributions to the development of NMR spectroscopy, which has become an essential tool in chemistry, biology, and medicine. Ernst's techniques have significantly improved the resolution and applicability of NMR, enabling scientists to analyze complex molecular structures and dynamics.
Richard Smalley was an American chemist best known for his work in nanotechnology and for his co-discovery of fullerenes, molecular structures composed entirely of carbon, resembling hollow spheres, ellipses, or tubes. This discovery earned him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996, which he shared with Robert Curl and Harold Kroto.
Richard Zare is a prominent American chemist known for his contributions to the fields of chemistry and spectroscopy. He is particularly noted for his work in laser chemistry, including the development of techniques for studying chemical reactions on a molecular level. Zare has made significant advancements in understanding the dynamics of molecular interactions and has published extensively in scientific literature. Zare has held various academic positions, including a long-standing association with Stanford University, where he has served as a professor in the Department of Chemistry.
Robert Andrews Millikan (1868â1953) was an American experimental physicist who is best known for his groundbreaking work in the field of charged particles and for measuring the elementary charge of an electron. He is particularly famous for his oil drop experiment conducted in 1909, which allowed him to determine the charge of an electron with high precision. Millikan's oil drop experiment involved observing tiny charged oil droplets suspended in an electric field.
Robert Bunsen (1811â1899) was a German chemist best known for his contributions to the field of chemistry and for the invention of the Bunsen burner, a common laboratory tool used for heating, sterilization, and combustion. The Bunsen burner provides a flame produced by mixing gas with air, allowing for precise temperature control in various chemical experiments.
Robert Curl is an American chemist who is best known for his co-discovery of fullerenes, a class of carbon allotropes that include structures like buckminsterfullerene (C60), which resembles a soccer ball. This groundbreaking work, conducted in the 1980s alongside Richard Smalley and Harold Kroto, led to significant advancements in the field of nanotechnology and materials science.
Robert G. Greenler is a notable figure in the field of optics and spectroscopy. He is known for his contributions to the understanding of light scattering and the development of various optical instruments and techniques. His work has had an impact on both fundamental research and practical applications in areas such as atmospheric science and the study of biological systems. If you have a specific aspect of Robert G.
As of my last knowledge update in October 2023, Robert P. Madden does not appear to be a widely recognized figure in mainstream news, literature, or entertainment. It's possible that he could be a professional or an individual known in a niche field, or perhaps a new or emerging figure since my last update.
Robert W. Field is a notable figure known primarily for his contributions to the fields of physics and materials science, particularly in the study of topological materials and their applications in quantum computing and advanced electronics. If you were thinking of a different Robert W.
Robert Williams is an American astronomer known for his significant contributions to the field of astronomy, particularly in the areas of galaxy formation and evolution. He served as the director of the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) from 1993 to 1998, during which he played a key role in overseeing the scientific operations of the Hubble Space Telescope.
Robin Clark is a distinguished chemist known for his contributions to the field of chemistry, particularly in the area of materials science and spectroscopy. His research often focuses on developing new analytical techniques and understanding molecular interactions, which can have implications in various fields, including environmental science and nanotechnology.
Robin M. Hochstrasser is a prominent American chemist known for his contributions to the fields of spectroscopy and physical chemistry. He has had a significant impact on the development of advanced techniques in molecular spectroscopy, including two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy. Hochstrasser's research often focuses on understanding molecular dynamics and interactions at a fundamental level, utilizing various spectroscopic methods to probe the behavior of complex systems. He has also been involved in educational efforts and has published extensively in scientific literature.
As of my last update in October 2023, there isn't widely known or significant information about an individual named Roman Personov. It's possible that he could be a private individual or a figure who has emerged after my knowledge cutoff.
Rudolf Mössbauer was a German physicist best known for the discovery of the Mössbauer effect, a physical phenomenon involving the recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma rays by atomic nuclei. This effect, which he discovered in 1958, allows for extremely precise measurements of nuclear energy levels and has important applications in various fields, including physics, chemistry, and biology.
As of my last update, there is no widely recognized figure or entity named Shelby G. Tilford in public databases, historical records, or notable literature. It's possible that Shelby G. Tilford could be a private individual, a lesser-known figure, or a fictional character. If you have more specific context or details regarding Shelby G.
Sydney Leach is not a widely recognized figure or concept in general discourse or popular culture, at least as of my last update in October 2021. It's possible that Sydney Leach may refer to a person, a character, or a term that has gained prominence after that date, or it may be a more localized or niche reference.
Sylvain Liberman could refer to different individuals or concepts, but there isn't any widely known figure or specific definition that clearly stands out associated with that name in popular culture or academia as of my last update.
Theodor W. HĂ€nsch is a German physicist known for his pioneering work in the field of laser spectroscopy. Born on October 30, 1941, he has made significant contributions to the development of techniques for precision measurement of atomic and molecular spectra. HĂ€nsch is particularly celebrated for his role in the advancement of the frequency comb technique, which allows for extremely high-precision measurements of light frequencies. HĂ€nsch shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2005 with John L.
Theodore Lyman IV is a notable American scientist and entrepreneur, particularly recognized for his contributions to the fields of laser technology and optics. He has been involved in various innovative projects and companies focused on advancing these technologies.
Thomas Edwin Nevin was an Australian photographer active in the late 19th century, particularly known for his work in Tasmania. He was born in 1842 and became renowned for his portraits, documentation of Tasmanian landscapes, and his contributions to the field of photography during a time when the medium was becoming more established. Nevin is often remembered for his innovative techniques and for capturing a wide range of subjects, including notable individuals and everyday life in Tasmania.
Thomas M. Baer is a prominent figure primarily known for his contributions in the field of optics and his work in the development of advanced laser technologies. He may be recognized for his role as the Director of the Stanford Photonics Research Center and for various academic and industry contributions related to physics and engineering. If you have a specific context or detail about Thomas M.
Thomas Melvill is not a widely recognized figure or concept as of my last update in October 2023.
As of my last update in October 2021, Tia Keyes is most notably recognized as an American television personality, particularly known for her role in the reality TV show "The Real World: San Diego" and its spin-offs. She is also known for her work as a host and her involvement in social media.
It seems there might be a mix-up in your question. "Heinz" typically refers to the well-known food company, especially famous for its ketchup and other condiments. However, "Tony Heinz" might not be a widely recognized name or entity in mainstream knowledge up to October 2023.
Tony Orchard is known primarily as a scientist, particularly in the field of biology and environmental studies. However, without more specific contextâsuch as whether you're referring to his work, contributions, or a different aspect of his identityâit's challenging to provide a detailed answer.
V. G. Bhide is a notable figure, likely recognized in the context of academia or industry, but without additional context, it's challenging to provide specific information. If you can specify whether you are referring to a person, a concept, or an organization related to V. G.
Victor Francis Hess (1883â1964) was an Austrian physicist known for his pioneering work in the field of cosmic rays. He is best known for his discovery of cosmic radiation, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1936 along with William E. McMillan. Hess conducted experiments in the early 20th century that involved measuring ionization at various altitudes using a balloon.
Victor Schumann may refer to different individuals or topics, but there isn't a widely recognized figure by that name in popular culture, history, or significant events up to my last knowledge update in October 2023. It's possible that Victor Schumann could be a lesser-known individual in a specific profession, or perhaps a fictional character, depending on the context.
Villy Sundström is a notable public figure in Sweden, primarily recognized for his contributions to various fields, including politics and possibly academia or business, depending on the specific context. However, there might be multiple individuals with that name, so it would be helpful to have more context to provide accurate information about the specific Villy Sundström you are referring to.
It seems like there might be a small mix-up in the name. You might be referring to Sergei Prokofiev, a famous Russian composer, pianist, and musical writer of the 20th century. Prokofiev is known for his significant contributions to classical music, including symphonies, concertos, operas, ballets, and film music.
"Walter Gordy" does not seem to refer to a widely recognized public figure, concept, or event within my knowledge base up to October 2023. It is possible that he could be a private individual or a lesser-known character in literature, media, or other contexts.
William Duane (born April 22, 1872 â died January 16, 1935) was an American physicist known for his contributions to the field of atomic and radiation physics. He was particularly noted for his work in experimental physics and made significant contributions to the understanding of the photoelectric effect. Duane is also recognized for the development of various technological applications related to radiation.
William E. Moerner is an American physicist and a notable figure in the field of chemistry and biophysics. He is best known for his contributions to the development of super-resolution microscopy, a technique that allows scientists to observe the behavior of molecules at the nanometer scale. Moerner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2014, along with Eric Betzig and Stefan W.
William Garrow Lettsom does not appear to be a widely recognized figure, and there may be no specific information readily available about an individual by that name.
William Huggins (1824â1910) was a prominent English astronomer known for his pioneering work in astrophysics. He is particularly noted for his contributions to the study of spectroscopy, which is the analysis of the light emitted or absorbed by materials. Huggins was one of the first astronomers to apply spectroscopy to the study of celestial bodies, helping to determine their composition, temperature, and motion.
William Klemperer is not a widely recognized name in major historical, cultural, or scientific contexts.
William P. Bidelman is a prominent figure in the field of psychology, particularly known for his contributions to the study of personality and social psychology. His work has often focused on how personality traits and social behaviors influence individual decision-making and interactions.
William Swan (1924â2015) was a notable physicist known for his contributions to various fields, particularly in the area of electromagnetic theory and its applications. He had a significant influence in the study of physics and was involved in research and academic pursuits throughout his career.
William de Wiveleslie Abney (1847â1932) was a British chemist and photographer known for his significant contributions to the field of photography, particularly in the study of light and color. He is best known for his work on photographic processes and the development of the "Abney method" of measuring the color and quality of light.
Willis Lamb is an American physicist known for his significant contributions to quantum mechanics and atomic physics. He is best known for his work on the fine structure of hydrogen spectral lines, which is a crucial aspect of quantum electrodynamics (QED). His research provided experimental evidence that helped to confirm theoretical predictions about the behavior of electrons in atoms. Lamb was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1955, sharing it with Robert R. Wilson.
Wolfgang Demtröder is a notable figure in the field of physics, particularly known for his work in spectroscopy and quantum mechanics. He is recognized for his contributions to the understanding of atomic and molecular interactions and has authored several textbooks and research papers on these subjects. One of his well-known works is the textbook "Laser Spectroscopy: Basic Concepts and Practical Methods," which is widely used in the educational sector for teaching concepts related to laser spectroscopy.
Wolfgang Stahl could refer to several individuals, as it is a relatively common name in German-speaking countries. Without more specific context, it's difficult to pinpoint exactly who you mean. One possibility is Wolfgang Stahl, a theoretical physicist known for his work in quantum mechanics and related fields. Additionally, there may be individuals in various professions, such as academics, artists, or sports figures, with that name.
Xiaoliang Sunney Xie is a prominent Chinese-American chemist and biophysicist known for his significant contributions to the fields of single-molecule detection, biophysics, and nanotechnology. He was born in China and has made important advancements in understanding biological processes at the molecular level. Xie is particularly noted for developing techniques such as single-molecule fluorescence microscopy and his work on DNA sequencing.
Spectroscopy journals are scientific publications that focus on the study and application of spectroscopy, which is a set of techniques used to measure the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter. These journals typically publish peer-reviewed research articles, reviews, and analysis related to various spectroscopic methods, including but not limited to: 1. **Infrared Spectroscopy**: Techniques that involve the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum to study molecular vibrations.
Applied Spectroscopy is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that focuses on the field of spectroscopy, which is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation. The journal covers a wide range of topics related to various spectroscopic techniques, including but not limited to infrared, ultraviolet-visible, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), mass spectrometry, and Raman spectroscopy.
Applied Spectroscopy Reviews is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that focuses on the application of spectroscopic techniques in various fields. It publishes reviews on the latest developments, advancements, and applications of spectroscopy in areas such as chemistry, biology, materials science, and environmental science, among others. The journal aims to provide a platform for researchers to share detailed insights into how spectroscopic methods are being utilized to solve complex problems or advance knowledge in different disciplines.
The Journal of Raman Spectroscopy is a scientific publication that focuses on research related to Raman spectroscopy and its applications. Raman spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique used to observe vibrational, rotational, and other low-frequency modes in a system. This technique is widely used in chemistry, biology, materials science, and various fields for analyzing molecular structures, chemical compositions, and interactions. The journal publishes original research articles, reviews, and technical notes that contribute to the advancement of knowledge in Raman spectroscopy and related techniques.
Optics and spectroscopy are branches of physics that deal with the behavior and properties of light. ### Optics Optics is the study of light, its interactions with matter, and the instruments used to manipulate and detect it. It encompasses a wide range of phenomena and applications, including: - **Reflection and Refraction:** How light bounces off surfaces (reflection) and bends when it passes through different media (refraction).
Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy is a scientific journal that focuses on the field of spectroscopy, particularly related to molecules and biomolecules. The journal publishes original research articles, reviews, and other types of scholarly content that explore various spectroscopic techniques and their applications in a wide range of scientific disciplines, including chemistry, biochemistry, and materials science.
"Spectrochimica Acta Part B" is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that publishes research articles and reviews in the field of spectroscopy. It is part of the larger "Spectrochimica Acta" series, which is known for focusing on various aspects of spectroscopic techniques and applications. Part B typically emphasizes specific areas such as molecular spectroscopy, photochemistry, and related topics that deal with the interactions between light and matter.
Spectroscopy Letters is a scientific journal that publishes research articles, reviews, and brief communications focused on the field of spectroscopy. Spectroscopy is a technique used to analyze the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation, and it has applications in various fields including chemistry, physics, material science, biology, and environmental science. The journal typically covers a wide range of topics related to spectroscopic techniques, including but not limited to infrared, ultraviolet, visible, and Raman spectroscopy.
"X-Ray Spectrometry" is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that focuses on the field of X-ray spectrometry, which involves the analysis and characterization of materials using X-ray techniques. The journal publishes original research articles, reviews, and technical notes that cover advancements in techniques, applications, and developments related to X-ray spectrometry. Topics may include but are not limited to X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and other X-ray-based analytical methods.
"Spectroscopy stubs" are not a widely recognized term in the field of spectroscopy, which is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation. However, itâs possible you are referring to one of the following: 1. **Spectroscopy Sample Stubs**: These are the platforms or holders used to secure samples during spectroscopy experiments. In techniques like infrared (IR) or Raman spectroscopy, samples need to be placed on a stable surface that can withstand analysis conditions without interfering with the spectrum.
An action spectrum is a graphical representation that illustrates the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of light in driving a particular biological process or photochemical reaction. It provides insights into how various wavelengths of light affect a specific physiological function, such as photosynthesis, vision, or phototropism in plants. In photosynthesis, for example, the action spectrum shows which wavelengths (typically in the blue and red regions of the spectrum) are most effective in driving the process of converting light energy into chemical energy.
An astro-comb is a sophisticated astronomical instrument that combines the functions of an optical frequency comb and a spectrograph. It is designed to create highly accurate and precise measurements of the spectrum of light from astronomical objects. Optical frequency combs produce a series of evenly spaced, discrete frequency lines (or modes) that can be used as a ruler for measuring optical frequencies with extraordinary precision.
A bicarbonate indicator refers to a chemical indicator used to determine the presence and concentration of bicarbonate ions (HCOââ») in a solution. Bicarbonate is an important component in various chemical and biological processes, including buffering systems in biological organisms and the carbon cycle in natural waters. In practice, bicarbonate indicators can be used in various analytical methods, such as titrations, to monitor changes in pH or to estimate the alkalinity of a solution.
A complexometric indicator is a type of chemical indicator used to detect the endpoint of a titration involving complex formation, particularly in complexometric titrations. These indicators undergo a change in color when they bind to a metal ion or when the metal ion is displaced from the indicator's complex, signaling that sufficient reagent has been added to the solution.
Dark current spectroscopy is a technique used in the field of spectroscopy to analyze the properties of materials and detect specific phenomena, often in the context of photodetectors and other devices that interact with light. The "dark current" refers to the electrical current that flows through a photodetector in the absence of light, which can arise from thermal excitation of charge carriers, defects, and other mechanisms.
The depolarization ratio is a term commonly used in the fields of optics, atmospheric science, and remote sensing to describe the degree of light polarization change after scattering, particularly in relation to particles or aerosols in the atmosphere. It is defined as the ratio of the intensity of the scattered light that is polarized to the intensity of the light that is unpolarized or the total intensity of the light.
Dexter electron transfer, often referred to in the context of quantum chemistry and solid-state physics, is a mechanism of electron transfer that involves quantum tunneling. This process typically occurs between two molecules that are in close proximity and involves the transfer of an electron from one molecular orbital to another, even when they are not directly in contact.
Fermi resonance is a phenomenon that occurs in molecular spectroscopy when two vibrational modes of a molecule become coupled due to their interaction, particularly when they have similar energies. This coupling leads to a shift in the energy levels of the vibrational modes, resulting in a mixing of their characteristics. In situations of Fermi resonance, one vibrational mode, typically a fundamental vibration, can influence another modeâoften an overtone or a combination bandâwith which it is energetically close.
The Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy is a scientific journal that focuses on research in the field of molecular spectroscopy. It publishes original research articles, reviews, and short communications that address various aspects of molecular spectroscopy, including theoretical, experimental, and computational studies. Molecular spectroscopy is the study of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with molecular species, and it plays a critical role in understanding molecular structure, dynamics, and interactions.
A K-line, in the context of X-ray imaging, refers to a specific feature related to X-ray photography and diagnosis. It pertains to the K-shell electrons of an atom, particularly in relation to the interaction between X-ray photons and the materials they pass through. In X-ray imaging, when an incident photon has enough energy, it can ionize an atom by ejecting an electron from its K-shell (the innermost shell of electrons).
The Kautsky effect typically refers to a phenomenon in the field of photobiology and plant sciences, named after the botanist Karl Kautsky. It describes the changes in chlorophyll fluorescence observed in plants when they are exposed to light. Specifically, the Kautsky effect is associated with the transient increase in chlorophyll fluorescence that occurs when a plant is suddenly illuminated after being in darkness.
Kratos MS 50 is generally known as a type of missile system, specifically the indigenous surface-to-air missile developed by India's Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). It is designed to provide air defense capabilities to protect various assets by engaging aerial threats like aircraft, drones, and missiles. Additionally, it may encompass integration with advanced tracking and guidance systems to ensure accurate targeting.
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging (MRSI) is an advanced imaging technique that combines Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to evaluate the biochemical composition of tissues in a non-invasive manner. While MRI primarily provides images based on the anatomy and structure of tissues, MRSI offers insights into the metabolic and chemical composition of those tissues.
Monochromatic wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WDXRF) is an analytical technique used to determine the elemental composition of materials. This method combines principles of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) with monochromatic wavelength dispersion, allowing for highly precise and sensitive elemental analysis. ### Key Components and Principles: 1. **X-ray Fluorescence (XRF)**: - XRF is a non-destructive analytical technique used to analyze the elemental composition of materials.
Rovibronic coupling refers to the interactions that occur between rotational, vibrational, and electronic states of molecules. The term is a combination of three components: 1. **Rotational (ro-)**: This part pertains to the rotational motion of molecules. When a molecule rotates, it can occupy various rotational energy levels. 2. **Vibrational (vi-)**: This aspect deals with the vibrational motion of the atoms within a molecule.
Spin-polarized electron energy loss spectroscopy (SPEELS) is a sophisticated technique used to investigate the electronic and magnetic properties of materials at the nanoscale. This method combines aspects of traditional electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) and spin-polarized techniques to provide insights into the spin states of electrons in materials.
Thermochromic ink is a type of specialized ink that changes color in response to temperature changes. This property is due to the incorporation of thermochromic pigments or dyes within the ink formulation. These pigments are sensitive to temperature variations and can exhibit a reversible color change, meaning they can switch from one color to another when heated or cooled.
Transient grating spectroscopy (TGS) is a time-resolved optical technique used to study the dynamics of materials, particularly in the fields of physics, chemistry, and materials science. This method allows researchers to investigate ultrafast processes, such as electron dynamics, phonon dynamics, and energy transfer mechanisms. ### Principles of Transient Grating Spectroscopy 1. **Grating Formation**: In TGS, two or more laser pulses are overlapped in a material, creating an interference pattern.
Vapor phase decomposition is a chemical process where a compound is broken down into its constituent parts (or simpler substances) in the vapor phase, usually through the application of heat or by exposure to a reactive environment. This process is often utilized in various industrial and laboratory applications, such as in the synthesis of materials, the purification of substances, or in chemical analysis.
X-ray Magnetic Circular Dichroism (XMCD) is a powerful spectroscopic technique used to probe the magnetic properties of materials at the atomic scale. It utilizes circularly polarized X-rays to study the magnetic states of a sample, providing information about the electronic structure and the magnetic moments associated with different elements in a material. The principle behind XMCD is based on the interaction of circularly polarized X-rays with magnetic materials.
Time-resolved spectroscopy is a technique used to study the dynamic processes of a system by measuring how its optical properties change over time. This method is particularly valuable in understanding rapid phenomena at the molecular and atomic levels, such as chemical reactions, energy transfer, and electron dynamics.
Ultrafast spectroscopy is a powerful experimental technique used to study the dynamics of chemical and physical processes on extremely short timescales, often on the order of femtoseconds (10^-15 seconds) to picoseconds (10^-12 seconds). It typically involves the use of short laser pulses to excite a sample and then probe the time-evolution of its electronic and molecular properties.
Attosecond chronoscopy is a cutting-edge scientific technique used to measure and observe extremely fast processes at the atomic and molecular levels. The term "attosecond" refers to a time scale of \(10^{-18}\) seconds, which is a billionth of a billionth of a second. Attosecond chronoscopy is essentially a method for timing and probing events that occur on this ultra-short time scale, such as the dynamics of electrons during chemical reactions or the movement of atoms in molecules.
Attosecond physics is a branch of physics that deals with phenomena occurring on the timescale of attoseconds (1 attosecond = \(10^{-18}\) seconds). This field primarily focuses on understanding electronic processes in atoms, molecules, and materials, as these processes often happen very rapidlyâtypically on the order of tens to hundreds of attoseconds.
Flash photolysis is a technique used in spectroscopy and photochemistry to study rapid chemical reactions and dynamics. It involves the use of a brief, intense flash of light (typically ultraviolet or visible light) to initiate a chemical reaction or to excite molecules from a ground state to an excited state. The general procedure includes the following steps: 1. **Preparation**: A sample containing the chemical species of interest is prepared in a suitable medium, such as a gas or liquid.
Photoexcitation is a process in which an electron in a material absorbs energy from a photon (a particle of light) and becomes excited to a higher energy state. This process is fundamental to many areas of physics and chemistry, playing a key role in phenomena such as photosynthesis, solar energy conversion, and the operation of various electronic and optoelectronic devices.
Quantum-optical spectroscopy is a field of study that combines concepts from quantum mechanics and optical spectroscopy to analyze the interaction of light with matter at the quantum level. This technique is used to investigate and understand the properties of materials by examining their response to light, particularly at the atomic and molecular scales. In quantum-optical spectroscopy, light is often described in terms of quantum mechanics, where it can be considered as both waves and particles (photons).
Vibrational spectroscopy is a technique used to study the vibrational transitions of molecules, which provides information about their molecular structure, bonding, and interactions. It is based on the principle that molecules vibrate at specific frequencies, and these vibrations can be excited by infrared (IR) or Raman radiation. There are two primary types of vibrational spectroscopy: 1. **Infrared Spectroscopy (IR):** This technique measures the absorption of infrared light by a molecule at specific wavelengths.
Raman spectroscopy is a non-destructive analytical technique used to study the vibrational, rotational, and other low-frequency modes in a system. It is based on the inelastic scattering of monochromatic light, usually from a laser, by molecular vibrations. When light interacts with molecular bonds, most of it is elastically scattered (Rayleigh scattering), but a small fraction of the light is scattered at different energies, corresponding to the vibrational energy levels of the molecules.
Brillouin spectroscopy is a sophisticated optical technique used to probe the mechanical and dielectric properties of materials at the microscopic level. It is based on the interaction of light with phonons, which are quantized sound waves or vibrational modes in a material.
A Brillouin zone is a fundamental concept in solid-state physics and crystallography that describes the momentum space (or reciprocal space) of a crystal lattice. It is defined as a specific volume in reciprocal space that contains all the unique momentum states of electrons (or other particles) in a periodic crystal structure due to the periodic arrangement of atoms.
High Resolution Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (HREELS) is a surface-sensitive analytical technique used to study the electronic and vibrational properties of materials, particularly surfaces and thin films. It involves the scattering of low-energy electrons (usually in the range of a few electron volts) from a material's surface, which provides detailed information about the energy levels of electrons in the material as well as various phonon modes (vibrations of the lattice).
The term "hot band" can refer to different concepts depending on the context: 1. **Music**: In the music industry, a "hot band" typically refers to a musical group that is currently very popular or trending. These bands often receive a lot of media attention, sell out shows, and have a strong following. They could span various genres, including rock, pop, hip hop, and more.
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is an analytical technique used to obtain information about the chemical composition and physical properties of a sample by analyzing the near-infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum, which typically ranges from about 750 nm to 2500 nm. ### Key Features of NIRS: 1. **Principle of Operation**: NIRS involves the absorption of near-infrared light by molecular vibrations.
Nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy (NRVS) is a highly specialized analytical technique used to probe the vibrational modes of molecules, particularly those containing nuclei with non-zero nuclear spin, such as iron (25% of naturally occurring iron is ^57Fe, which has a nuclear spin). It combines elements of nuclear resonance techniques, such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and Mössbauer spectroscopy, with vibrational spectroscopy methods, like infrared (IR) or Raman spectroscopy.
Sum frequency generation (SFG) spectroscopy is a nonlinear optical technique used to study interfaces and surfaces at the molecular level. It combines two incoming photons, typically from infrared (IR) and visible or near-infrared (NIR) laser sources, to produce a new photon whose frequency is the sum of the frequencies of the incoming photons. This process occurs primarily in non-centrosymmetric media, which is often the case at surfaces and interfaces.
Vibrational spectroscopy is a technique used to study the vibrational transitions in molecules, which are related to the vibrations of atoms within the molecular structure. When it comes to linear molecules, vibrational spectroscopy can provide insights into how these molecules vibrate and how those vibrations can be measured through interaction with electromagnetic radiation. ### Key Concepts: 1. **Vibrational Modes**: Linear molecules exhibit specific vibrational modes based on their structure.
X-ray spectroscopy is an analytical technique used to study the properties of materials by examining the interaction of X-rays with matter. This method allows researchers to identify the elemental composition and electronic structure of samples at the atomic level. Here are some key points about X-ray spectroscopy: 1. **Principles**: When X-rays are directed at a material, they can be absorbed, emitted, or scattered.
X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) is a powerful analytical technique used to study the electronic and structural properties of materials at the atomic level. It involves the measurement of the absorption of X-rays by a sample as a function of energy. The technique provides information about the oxidation state, coordination geometry, and local environment of specific elements within a material.
An Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) is an analytical instrument used primarily in planetary science, geology, and material science to measure the elemental composition of a sample. The APXS works by utilizing alpha particles and X-rays to determine the presence and concentration of various elements within the material being analyzed. ### Key Features of APXS: 1. **Working Principle**: - The APXS generates alpha particles, which are emitted from a radioactive source, typically americium-241.
Electron orbital imaging is a technique used in advanced microscopy to visualize the distribution of electron density in materials at the atomic or molecular level. It relies on the principles of electron scattering and wavefunction representation within quantum mechanics. This imaging technique is particularly useful in studying the electronic structure of materials, including their orbitals, which can reveal important information about chemical bonding, reactivity, and material properties.
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX or EDS) is an analytical technique used to determine the elemental composition of materials. It is frequently employed in conjunction with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) or transmission electron microscopy (TEM). ### Key Features of EDX: 1. **Principle of Operation**: EDX works by bombarding a sample with high-energy X-rays or electrons.
Resonant Inelastic X-ray Scattering (RIXS) is an advanced spectroscopic technique used primarily in the study of the electronic and magnetic properties of materials. It combines elements of X-ray scattering and spectroscopy to provide insights into the excitations of a system, such as phonons, magnons, and electronic excitations, often with a high level of energy resolution.
X-ray Raman scattering (XRS) is a spectroscopy technique that combines elements of X-ray scattering and Raman scattering to study the electronic and structural properties of materials at the atomic scale. It involves the inelastic scattering of X-ray photons from the electrons in a sample, where the energy of the incident X-ray photons is partially transferred to the electronic states of the material. This results in a change in the energy and momentum of the scattered X-rays.
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is a non-destructive analytical technique used to determine the elemental composition of materials. When a sample is irradiated with X-rays, it absorbs some of the energy, causing the inner-shell electrons of the atoms in the sample to be ejected. As a result, electrons from higher energy levels within the atom fill these vacancies, and energy is released in the form of characteristic X-rays.
X-ray fluorescence holography (XFH) is a technique used to obtain information about the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a material by utilizing the phenomenon of X-ray fluorescence. This method combines aspects of X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy and holography to produce detailed, spatially resolved images of the atomic structure. In X-ray fluorescence, when a sample is exposed to X-ray radiation, elements within the sample can emit fluorescent X-rays.
X-ray notation is a system used in the field of crystallography to describe the arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice. It is particularly useful in the analysis of X-ray diffraction patterns obtained from crystalline materials. The notation typically includes the identification of crystal planes and directions in terms of Miller indices. Miller indices are a set of three integers (h, k, l) that denote the orientation of a plane in a crystal lattice.
X-ray Photon Correlation Spectroscopy (XPCS) is a sophisticated experimental technique used primarily in condensed matter physics and materials science to study the dynamics of particles at the nanoscale. It leverages the principles of correlation functions typically applied in light scattering experiments to analyze the temporal fluctuations in the intensity of X-ray scattering from a sample.
X-ray standing waves (XSW) refer to a phenomenon that occurs when X-rays are diffracted from a crystal or a periodic structure in such a way that they create standing wave patterns. This effect can be understood through the principles of wave interference, where two waves of the same frequency traveling in opposite directions combine to form a stationary wave pattern.
An absorption band refers to a specific range of wavelengths or frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum where light (or other electromagnetic radiation) is absorbed by a material rather than transmitted or reflected. In other words, it is a region where the intensity of light decreases due to the absorption of photons by the atoms or molecules in a substance. Absorption bands are often associated with particular electronic, vibrational, or rotational transitions within molecules or atoms.
Acoustic Resonance Spectroscopy (ARS) is an analytical technique that utilizes acoustic waves to probe materials and determine their properties. The technique is based on the principle of resonance, where certain frequencies of sound waves cause an object (such as a sample being studied) to vibrate at specific modes. In acoustic resonance spectroscopy, the interaction of sound waves with a sample can provide valuable information about its physical and chemical properties, such as density, elastic modulus, and composition.
Aggregation-induced emission (AIE) refers to a photophysical phenomenon observed in certain luminescent materials, particularly organic compounds. Unlike traditional fluorescent materials, which often experience a decrease in emission intensity (quenching) when they aggregate, AIE-active compounds exhibit enhanced emission when they are in an aggregated state.
Airborne Real-time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance (ARCHER) is an advanced reconnaissance system designed for military and intelligence applications. This system utilizes hyperspectral imaging technology, which involves capturing and analyzing light in many different spectral bands beyond the visible spectrum. Hereâs a breakdown of its key components and features: 1. **Hyperspectral Imaging**: Unlike conventional cameras that capture light in just a few bands, hyperspectral imaging collects information across hundreds of spectral bands.
The Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) is a specialized remote sensing instrument designed for capturing high-resolution spectral images of the Earth's surface. Developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), AVIRIS is used primarily for scientific research in various fields, including geology, ecology, and environmental monitoring.
Alpha-particle spectroscopy is a technique used to analyze and characterize materials based on the detection and measurement of alpha particles emitted from radioactive substances. Alpha particles are helium nuclei, consisting of two protons and two neutrons, and they are emitted during certain types of radioactive decay. The primary applications of alpha-particle spectroscopy include: 1. **Radioactive Source Characterization**: It helps in identifying and quantifying radioactive isotopes within a sample based on the energies of the emitted alpha particles.
Angle-resolved low-coherence interferometry (AR-LCI) is an advanced optical technique used to measure the thickness and other properties of thin films, surfaces, and layered structures with high spatial resolution. The method combines principles from low-coherence interferometry with angle-resolved detection, allowing for detailed analysis of materials at microscopic and nanoscale levels.
Anisotropic terahertz microspectroscopy is a technique that combines terahertz (THz) spectroscopy with imaging to study materials and biological samples at the microscopic level, focusing on their anisotropic properties. Here's a breakdown of the key components: 1. **Terahertz Spectroscopy**: Terahertz radiation occupies the frequency range between microwave and infrared light, typically from about 0.1 to 10 THz (or 0.3 to 30 mm wavelengths).
Applied spectroscopy is the use of spectroscopic techniques to analyze materials and substances in various fields, including chemistry, biology, materials science, environmental science, and medicine. Spectroscopy itself is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation, and it encompasses a variety of techniques that can provide detailed information about the structure, composition, and properties of substances. In applied spectroscopy, researchers and practitioners utilize various spectroscopic methods to address practical problems and gather data for specific applications.
Astronomical spectroscopy is a technique used in astronomy to analyze the light emitted, absorbed, or scattered by objects in space, such as stars, galaxies, and nebulae. It involves breaking down this light into its constituent wavelengths, creating a spectrum that reveals a wealth of information about the source of the light. Key aspects of astronomical spectroscopy include: 1. **Spectra Types**: The resulting spectrum can be continuous, emission, or absorption spectra, each providing different insights.
Asteroid spectral classes are classifications used to categorize asteroids based on their reflectance spectra, which is the way they reflect sunlight. These spectral characteristics provide insights into their composition, structure, and sometimes their origins. The most common asteroid spectral classes are based on the taxonomy developed by the asteroid community, primarily the Tholen and Bus-DeMeo classifications.
Exoplanets detected by radial velocity, also known as the Doppler method or the radial velocity method, is a technique used to identify exoplanets by observing the gravitational influence they have on their host stars. This method takes advantage of the Doppler effect, where the light emitted by a star shifts in wavelength depending on its motion relative to an observer.
Asteroid spectral types are classifications of asteroids based on their reflectance spectra, which is the way they reflect light across different wavelengths. These spectral types help astronomers understand the composition, surface properties, and origins of asteroids. Different spectral types correspond to different mineralogical and chemical compositions. The most commonly used spectral classifications for asteroids include: 1. **C-type (Carbonaceous)**: These are the most common type, making up about 75% of all known asteroids.
The Balmer jump refers to a specific phenomenon observed in the spectra of hydrogen or hydrogen-like atoms, where there is a significant discontinuity in the intensity of the spectral lines in the Balmer series. The Balmer series consists of the spectral lines corresponding to electron transitions from higher energy levels (n â„ 3) down to the second energy level (n = 2) in hydrogen.
In the context of probability and statistics, a **binary mass function** generally refers to a probability mass function (PMF) for a discrete random variable that can take only two possible outcomes, typically coded as 0 and 1. This type of distribution is often used to model binary events, such as a coin toss (heads or tails) or a success/failure scenario in Bernoulli trials.
The term "calcium triplet" typically refers to a specific feature observed in the spectrum of stars, particularly in the ultraviolet and visible light ranges. This feature consists of three closely spaced absorption lines associated with ionized calcium (Ca II). The calcium triplet lines are prominent in the spectra of late-type stars, especially red giants, and are most commonly observed in the following wavelengths: 1. **H and K lines** (3968 Ă
and 3934 Ă
) 2.
Collisional excitation is a process in which an atom or molecule absorbs energy during a collision with a particle, such as another atom, molecule, or electron. This energy transfer can promote an electron within the atom or molecule to a higher energy state, or excited state. Here's how it works: 1. **Encounter**: During a collision, kinetic energy from the colliding particle (which can be a gas particle or an electron) is transferred to the target atom or molecule.
A Damped Lyman-alpha system (DLA) is a type of astronomical object observed in the spectra of distant quasars and galaxies. It is characterized by a strong absorption feature in the Lyman-alpha transition of hydrogen (at a wavelength of 121.6 nm) due to neutral hydrogen gas in the intervening medium.
The Doppler parameter, often denoted as \( \beta \), is a dimensionless quantity used to describe the relativistic effects of motion in the context of Doppler shift, particularly in astrophysics and cosmology. It is defined as: \[ \beta = \frac{v}{c} \] where: - \( v \) is the relative velocity of an object moving away from or towards an observer, - \( c \) is the speed of light in a vacuum.
Doppler spectroscopy, also known as Doppler radial velocity spectroscopy, is a technique used primarily in astronomy to detect and characterize exoplanets and other celestial bodies. It leverages the Doppler effect, which describes the change in frequency or wavelength of light (or other waves) in relation to an observer moving relative to the source of that light.
Doubly ionized oxygen refers to an oxygen atom that has lost two of its electrons, resulting in a cation with a charge of +2. This can be represented chemically as OÂČâș. In this state, the oxygen atom is in a highly energetic condition and is less stable compared to neutral oxygen or singly ionized oxygen (Oâș).
H-alpha is a specific wavelength of light that is emitted by hydrogen atoms when their electrons transition from the third energy level to the second energy level. This transition produces light at a wavelength of 656.28 nanometers, which falls within the red part of the visible spectrum.
Lyman-alpha blobs are large, glowing regions of hydrogen gas that emit strong Lyman-alpha radiation, which corresponds to the wavelength of light emitted by neutral hydrogen atoms when an electron transitions from the second energy level to the ground state. These blobs are typically found in the early universe, often associated with actively forming galaxies or regions with significant star formation.
The Lyman-alpha forest refers to a series of absorption lines in the spectra of distant quasars, primarily produced by intervening clouds of hydrogen gas in the intergalactic medium. When light from a quasar passes through these clouds, certain wavelengths of that light are absorbed due to the Lyman-alpha transition of hydrogen, which corresponds to a specific wavelength of 121.6 nanometers in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum.
A Multi-Object Spectrometer (MOS) is an astronomical instrument designed to obtain spectra from multiple astronomical objects simultaneously. Instead of focusing on a single object (as with traditional spectrometers), a MOS can gather information from many different targets within a single observation. This capability is particularly valuable for large surveys and studies of distant galaxies, star clusters, and other celestial phenomena, as it allows for efficient data collection across a wide field of view.
The Pickering series refers to a series of spectral lines that are observed in the emission or absorption spectra of certain elements, particularly hydrogen. These lines arise from electronic transitions of the hydrogen atom, where electrons move between different energy levels. The Pickering series specifically refers to transitions where an electron falls from a higher energy level (n â„ 6) down to the n=5 energy level. It is named after the British astronomer William Pickering, who studied these spectral lines.
The RossiterâMcLaughlin effect is an astrophysical phenomenon observed during transits of exoplanets, specifically when a planet passes in front of its host star from our viewpoint. This effect occurs because the planet partially blocks the star's light and causes a distortion in the Doppler shift of the star's light as seen from Earth. When a planet transits, it blocks different parts of the star's surface as it moves across it.
SLIM can refer to various concepts depending on the context. Here are a few possibilities: 1. **SLIM (Software Library for Image Manipulation)**: A library or tool used for manipulating images in different programming environments. 2. **SLIM (Statistical Learning and Inference Method)**: A method or approach in statistics and data science for making inferences based on statistical models.
SOXS is an acronym that can refer to different things depending on the context. Here are a couple of common usages: 1. **SOXS (Soxhlet Extraction)**: In scientific and analytical contexts, SOXS may refer to the Soxhlet extraction method, which is used to extract lipids or other compounds from a solid sample through continuous solvent extraction.
Slitless spectroscopy is a technique used in the field of astronomical spectroscopy that allows for the observation and analysis of light from celestial objects without the use of a physical slit to restrict the incoming light. Instead, this method employs a dispersive element, like a prism or grating, to separate light into its constituent wavelengths over a wide field of view.
A spectral atlas is a collection of spectra representing various physical substances, typically used in fields like spectroscopy, astronomy, and chemistry. These atlases serve as reference materials for identifying and analyzing the spectral lines emitted or absorbed by different elements and compounds. In the context of astronomical applications, a spectral atlas may contain the spectral lines of stars, galaxies, and other celestial objects, allowing astronomers to determine their composition, temperature, density, mass, distance, luminosity, and relative motion.
Spectral imaging is a technique that captures and analyzes the spectral characteristics of light reflected or emitted from objects. Unlike traditional imaging methods that primarily capture intensity information in the visible spectrum, spectral imaging gathers information across a wide range of wavelengths, including ultraviolet, visible, and infrared light.
The StebbinsâWhitford effect refers to a phenomenon observed in the field of astronomy, specifically in the context of star formation and the evolutionary pathways of galaxies. It describes the relationship between the metallicity (the abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium) of stars and their distance from the galactic center. In general, stars in the central regions of a galaxy tend to have higher metallicities compared to those located further out.
The WilsonâBappu effect is an astronomical phenomenon observed in the field of stellar spectroscopy, particularly concerning the stars designated as Cepheid variables. It describes a correlation between the period of pulsation of Cepheid variables and their mean luminosity (brightness). Essentially, this means that the longer the period of pulsation of a Cepheid variable star, the more luminous it is. This relationship is crucial for distance measurement in astronomy.
Atomic spectroscopy is a set of analytical techniques used to determine the elemental composition of substances by measuring the light emitted or absorbed by atoms. The primary principle behind atomic spectroscopy is that atoms have distinct energy levels, and when they transition between these levels, they emit or absorb electromagnetic radiation at specific wavelengths. This unique spectral information can be used to identify and quantify elements within a sample.
Automated mineralogy is a sophisticated analytical technique used to characterize and analyze the mineralogical composition of rocks, ores, and other geological materials. It utilizes advanced technologies, such as electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and imaging systems, to automate the identification, quantification, and mapping of minerals in samples.
Band emission refers to the release of light or electromagnetic radiation from a material, particularly in the context of semiconductors and solid-state physics. This phenomenon commonly occurs when electrons transition between energy bands, particularly when they move from the conduction band to the valence band, resulting in the emission of photons.
The band gap refers to the energy difference between the valence band, which is the highest range of electron energies in a solid where electrons are normally present, and the conduction band, which is the range of electron energies where electrons can move freely and conduct electricity. In more detail: 1. **Valence Band**: This is the energy band that contains the electrons involved in bonding. Electrons in this band are generally not free to move, as they are bound to their respective atoms.
A "band head" typically refers to the primary or leading figure of a music band, often taking on a role of leadership or representation within the group. This person may be the main vocalist, the creator of the band's music, or someone who handles public relations and overall direction of the band's artistic vision.
A bathochromic shift, also known as a red shift, refers to the phenomenon where the absorption or emission spectrum of a substance shifts to longer wavelengths (lower energy) when it undergoes a change in its environment or structure.
The BenesiâHildebrand method is a spectroscopic technique used primarily in analytical chemistry to determine the stability constants of complexes formed between a ligand and a metal ion. It is often employed in the context of UV-Vis spectrophotometry.
Biomedical spectroscopy is an analytical technique that applies the principles of spectroscopy to study biological samples. It involves the interaction of light with biological tissues and fluids to gather information about their molecular composition, structure, and dynamics. This method can be used to diagnose diseases, monitor physiological processes, and investigate the molecular makeup of cells and tissues. ### Key Techniques in Biomedical Spectroscopy: 1. **Infrared Spectroscopy (IR)**: Often used to identify organic compounds through their vibrational transitions.
The BirgeâSponer method is a technique used in molecular spectroscopy and quantum chemistry to determine the dissociation energy of diatomic molecules. The method relies on analyzing vibrational energy levels, particularly the transition energies between vibrational states of a molecule. ### Key Concepts of the BirgeâSponer Method: 1. **Vibrational Energy Levels**: Diatomic molecules exhibit quantized vibrational states that can be described by quantum mechanics.
A Breathalyzer is a device used to measure the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) in a person's breath. It works by analyzing the breath of an individual after they have consumed alcohol. When a person exhales into the device, it estimates the amount of alcohol in their bloodstream based on the concentration of alcohol vapor in the breath. Breathalyzers are commonly used by law enforcement officers to test drivers for intoxication during traffic stops or sobriety checkpoints.
BACtrack is a company known for its production of personal breathalyzers designed to measure blood alcohol content (BAC). Their devices allow users to estimate their level of intoxication by analyzing the amount of alcohol present in their breath. BACtrack offers a variety of models ranging from compact, portable units to more advanced smartphone-connected devices that provide detailed readings and additional features, such as tracking alcohol consumption over time and sharing results.
Birchfield v. North Dakota is a significant U.S. Supreme Court case decided in 2016. The case primarily addressed the issue of whether law enforcement can conduct warrantless breath tests and blood tests on individuals suspected of driving under the influence (DUI) of alcohol. The background of the case involved a driver, Tyler Birchfield, who was arrested for DUI in North Dakota. He refused to submit to a blood test but was subjected to a breath test, which he complied with.
Breathometer is a portable device designed to measure blood alcohol content (BAC) by analyzing a person's breath. Originally launched as a smartphone accessory, it allowed users to check their alcohol levels by blowing into the device, which then communicated with a mobile app to provide readings and feedback. The concept was aimed at promoting responsible drinking by helping individuals make informed decisions about their alcohol consumption. However, the company faced legal and regulatory challenges, and there were concerns regarding the accuracy and reliability of the device.
A coronavirus breathalyzer is a diagnostic tool designed to detect COVID-19 infection through breath samples. It operates on the principle that individuals infected with the virus may release certain volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or other biomarkers in their breath that can be identified through specialized sensors or analytical techniques. The concept of using breath analysis for disease detection is not new, and researchers have been exploring it for various conditions, including infections, metabolic disorders, and even some types of cancer.
Intoxalock is a brand that provides ignition interlock devices (IIDs), which are breathalyzer devices installed in vehicles to prevent impaired driving. These devices require the driver to submit a breath sample to measure their blood alcohol concentration (BAC) before the vehicle can be started. If the BAC is above a certain limit, the vehicle will not start. Intoxalock services are often used as part of court-ordered requirements for individuals convicted of DUI (driving under the influence) offenses.
Mitchell v. Wisconsin is a significant case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 2019. The case addressed the Fourth Amendment, specifically issues related to warrantless blood draws in the context of drunken driving cases. In this case, the defendant, Gerald Mitchell, was arrested for operating a vehicle while intoxicated. After he was taken into custody, he became unconscious, and the police decided to conduct a blood draw without a warrant to determine his blood alcohol content.
Robert Frank Borkenstein (1912â2002) was a notable American scientist and researcher, best known for his contributions to the field of forensic science, particularly in the development of breath alcohol testing devices. Borkenstein invented the Breathalyzer, a device that measures blood alcohol content (BAC) from a breath sample. His work played a significant role in promoting public safety and law enforcement practices related to driving under the influence (DUI).
Rolla Neil Harger was an American astronomer and physicist known for his contributions in the field of astrophysics and astronomical research. He is often recognized for his work with meteorites and his research on cosmic rays. One of his notable contributions is the development of the Harger-Cheyne method for measuring the effectiveness of meteorite collection in specific geographic areas.
William Duncan McNally is not a widely recognized public figure or concept in historical or contemporary contexts, based on the information available up until October 2021. It's possible that he may be a private individual, a local figure, or someone who has emerged in news or culture after that time.
Broadband Acoustic Resonance Dissolution Spectroscopy (BARDS) is an analytical technique that leverages acoustics to study materials, particularly in the context of pharmaceutical analysis and characterization. This method is used to gain insights into the structural aspects and dissolution properties of solid dosage forms, such as tablets and powders. ### Key Features of BARDS: 1. **Acoustic Resonance**: The technique involves the use of acoustic waves that resonate within a sample.
Broadband viscoelastic spectroscopy (BVS) is an advanced technique used to characterize the viscoelastic properties of materials across a wide range of frequencies. It is particularly useful for studying polymers, biological materials, and composite systems. ### Key Components of BVS: 1. **Viscoelasticity**: This refers to the property of materials that exhibit both viscous (liquid-like) and elastic (solid-like) behavior when deformed.
Cantilever-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (CE-PAS) is an advanced analytical technique that combines the principles of photoacoustic spectroscopy with the use of micro or nano-scale cantilevers to enhance signal detection. This method is particularly useful for detecting trace amounts of gaseous or dissolved species in various environments.
Cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) is a highly sensitive optical measurement technique used to analyze the concentration of gases or the properties of materials. It is based on the principle of measuring the time it takes for light to "ring down" or decay within an optical cavity. Hereâs a brief overview of how it works and its key features: ### Principle 1.
Charge modulation spectroscopy (CMS) is a technique used to investigate the electronic properties of materials, particularly semiconductors and nanostructures. It involves the application of an external modulation of the charge carrier density to probe the material's response. The main goal of CMS is to gain insights into the interactions between charge carriers, such as electrons and holes, and to understand various physical phenomena such as transport properties, energy levels, and electronic band structure.
Chemical imaging is a technique used to visualize the spatial distribution of chemical species in a sample. It combines traditional imaging techniques with chemical analysis to provide detailed information about the composition, structure, and properties of materials at a micro or nanoscales. This approach allows researchers to obtain information on the morphology, concentration, and interactions of various chemical components within a sample.
The Coblentz Society is an organization dedicated to advancing the field of molecular spectroscopy, particularly in the infrared. It was founded in 1948 and is named after the physicist and chemist, Frederick Coblentz, who made significant contributions to the field. The society aims to promote research, education, and communication in molecular spectroscopy by organizing workshops, conferences, and publishing scientific papers and newsletters.
Coherent microwave scattering refers to the interaction of microwave signals with objects or media in a manner where the scattered waves maintain a defined phase relationship with the incoming waves. This phenomenon occurs when the dimensions of the scattering objects or features are comparable to the wavelength of the microwaves involved, typically in the range of millimeters to centimeters. In coherent scattering, the scattered waves interfere with each other, resulting in a range of observable effects, including constructive and destructive interference.
Cold vapor atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (CVAFS) is an analytical technique used primarily for the detection and quantification of trace amounts of mercury and some other elements in various samples. The method is characterized by its high sensitivity and selectivity, making it especially useful in environmental, biological, and industrial analyses.
Collision-induced absorption (CIA) and collision-induced emission (CIE) are phenomena that occur when molecules interact with one another during collisions, leading to changes in their energy states. These processes are particularly relevant in the context of molecular gases and contribute to their spectral properties. Here's a breakdown of each concept: ### Collision-Induced Absorption (CIA) - **Definition**: CIA refers to the absorption of light (electromagnetic radiation) resulting from the interactions between colliding molecules.
A colorimeter is an analytical instrument used to measure the concentration of colored compounds in a solution. It operates on the principle of colorimetry, which is based on the Beer-Lambert law. This law states that the absorbance of light by a solution is proportional to the concentration of the absorbing substance and the path length of the light through the solution.
The Compton edge refers to a specific feature observed in the energy spectrum of photons detected in a material, such as a semiconductor or scintillator, when it interacts with gamma rays or high-energy photons. This phenomenon is a result of the Compton scattering process, where an incoming photon collides with an electron and transfers some of its energy to the electron, causing it to be ejected from the atom.
Cross-polarization refers to a phenomenon in which electromagnetic waves (usually radio waves or light) are polarized in directions that are perpendicular to each other. This concept is commonly discussed in optics, telecommunications, and radar technology. ### Key Points about Cross-Polarization: 1. **Polarization Basics**: Polarization describes the orientation of the oscillations of electromagnetic waves.
The curve of growth is a concept used in various fields, such as astronomy, biology, and economics, to describe how certain quantities change in relation to time or another variable. Here are a few contexts in which the term is commonly used: 1. **Astronomy**: In astronomy, the curve of growth refers to the relationship between the strength of spectral lines of a star or other celestial object and the abundance of absorbing or emitting material.
Cyclopropyl cyanide is an organic compound that consists of a cyclopropyl group (a three-membered carbon ring) attached to a cyanide group (âCâĄN).
Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS) is a sensitive and powerful technique used in semiconductor physics and materials science to investigate deep-level electronic states in semiconductors. These deep levels, which are energy states located within the bandgap of a semiconductor, can influence the electrical properties and performance of devices such as diodes, transistors, and solar cells.
The Deslandres table, also known as the Deslandres chart, is a tool used in the field of astronomy and astrophysics to facilitate the classification and analysis of celestial bodies' spectra, particularly stars. Named after the French astronomer Camille Deslandres, the table organizes spectral lines based on their wavelengths. In detail, the Deslandres table presents a systematic arrangement of the absorption or emission lines observed in the spectra of stars.
The Dicke effect is a phenomenon observed in quantum mechanics, particularly in the context of atomic physics and quantum optics. Named after the physicist Robert H. Dicke, the effect describes the influence of cooperative interactions among atoms, particularly in a dense medium.
Dielectric spectroscopy, also known as electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), is an analytical technique used to study the dielectric properties of materials over a range of frequencies. It involves applying an alternating current (AC) electric field to a sample and measuring how the sample responds, specifically how it polarizes and interacts with the electric field. The response information can provide insights into various physical and chemical properties of the material, including molecular mobility, conductivity, and phase transitions.
Differential Dynamic Microscopy (DDM) is a quantitative imaging technique used primarily in the study of dynamic processes in biological and soft matter systems. It is particularly valuable for investigating the motion and dynamics of particles in complex environments like colloids, proteins, or cellular systems. The main principles of DDM involve capturing a series of images of a sample over time and analyzing the fluctuations in the intensity of the images to extract information about the movement of particles.
Diffuse correlation spectrometry (DCS) is an advanced optical imaging technique primarily used for non-invasive measurements of blood flow in tissues. It leverages the principles of correlation spectroscopy and diffusive light scattering to assess the dynamics of blood flow at a microvascular level. ### Key Concepts of DCS: 1. **Light Interactions**: DCS involves shining near-infrared (NIR) light into biological tissues.
Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) is a technique used to analyze the optical properties of materials by measuring the light that is scattered from a sample. This method is particularly useful for studying opaque or semi-opaque samples, where traditional transmission spectroscopy would not be feasible due to light absorption or scattering. ### Key Concepts: 1. **Theory**: When light is incident on a sample, it can be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted.
The term "diffuse series" can refer to different concepts depending on the context. However, it is not a widely recognized term in any specific field, such as mathematics, physics, or biology. It might be a misinterpretation or a specific concept within a niche area that is not broadly known.
Diffusing-wave spectroscopy (DWS) is a technique used to study the dynamics of complex, opaque materials, such as colloids, biological tissues, and granular media. This method is based on the scattering of light from a sample that is not transparent, where the light is scattered multiple times due to the complex structure and dynamics of the sample.
The term "doublet state" is often used in the context of quantum mechanics, particularly when discussing the energy levels of systems with certain symmetries, such as electron configurations in atoms or molecules. In general terms, a doublet state refers to a quantum state characterized by two closely spaced energy levels or components.
Dynamic light scattering (DLS) is a technique used to measure the size distribution of small particles, typically in the nanometer to micrometer range, in suspension or in a colloidal system. The fundamental principle behind DLS is the analysis of the fluctuations in the intensity of scattered light due to the Brownian motion of the particles. ### Key Concepts: 1. **Brownian Motion**: Particles in a liquid or gas are constantly in motion due to thermal energy.
EUCMOS, or the European Consortium for the Molecular Orientation of Solvents, is a collaborative effort typically involving researchers and institutions across Europe. Its focus is on the study and application of molecular orientation in solvents, which is important for various fields, including chemistry, material science, and environmental science. The goals of EUCMOS may include advancing research on solvent properties, developing new experimental techniques, and promoting the exchange of knowledge and data among scientists in the field.
The Earle K. Plyler Prize for Molecular Spectroscopy is an award presented annually by the American Physical Society (APS) to recognize outstanding accomplishments in the field of molecular spectroscopy. Established in honor of Earle K. Plyler, a significant contributor to the field, the prize aims to acknowledge individuals who have made important contributions through innovative experimental techniques, theoretical work, or other significant achievements in molecular spectroscopy.
The Eastern Analytical Symposium (EAS) is an annual conference and exhibition focused on analytical chemistry and related fields. It typically features a variety of activities, including: 1. **Technical Sessions**: These sessions include presentations and discussions on the latest research and developments in analytical chemistry, instrumentation, methods, and applications. 2. **Workshops and Short Courses**: The symposium often offers educational opportunities through workshops and short courses aimed at professionals looking to enhance their skills and knowledge in specific areas of analytical science.
Electrically detected magnetic resonance (EDMR) is a sensitive technique used to study charge-related properties of semiconductor materials, particularly in the context of defects, impurities, and electronic states. It is a variant of traditional electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) or electron spin resonance (ESR). In EDMR, the magnetic resonance of paramagnetic defects or electron spins is detected through their effect on the electrical properties of a semiconductor sample.
Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) is a microstructural crystallography technique that is typically used in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to analyze the crystallographic structure of materials at the nanoscale. The technique provides information about the orientation of individual grains in polycrystalline materials, allowing researchers to study grain structure, phase distribution, and defect characterization.
Electron Magnetic Circular Dichroism (EMCD) is a spectroscopic technique that exploits the interaction between electrons and magnetic fields to study the electronic and magnetic properties of materials at the atomic level. It is particularly useful for investigating magnetic materials and can provide information about the spin and orbital moments of electrons in a sample. The fundamental principle of EMCD is based on the circular dichroism effect, which is the differential absorption of left-handed versus right-handed circularly polarized light.
Electron phenomenological spectroscopy typically refers to techniques that use the interaction of electrons with matter to probe and characterize the properties of materials, often at the atomic or molecular level.
Electron spectroscopy is a technique used to study the electronic structure of materials by analyzing the energies of electrons that are emitted from a sample. This method involves the interaction of photons (light) or electrons with matter, leading to the ejection of electrons from the material. The energies and intensities of these emitted electrons provide valuable information about the electronic states, chemical composition, and bonding characteristics of the sample.
The Auger effect is a physical phenomenon observed in atomic and solid-state physics, where an atom or molecule releases energy in the form of Auger electrons. This effect occurs following the ionization of an atom, typically after the ejection of an inner-shell electron due to high-energy processes such as X-ray absorption or electron bombardment.
Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) is a surface-sensitive analytical technique used primarily for the characterization of materials. It is based on the Auger effect, which describes the process by which an electron is emitted from an atom as a result of an inner-shell electron transition. This technique is particularly useful for studying the elemental composition and electronic states of surfaces.
Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) is a powerful analytical technique used primarily in electron microscopy to study the elemental and electronic properties of materials at the nanoscale. It involves the interaction of high-energy electrons with a specimen. Hereâs how it works and its key aspects: ### Principle: 1. **Electron Beam Interaction**: A high-energy electron beam is directed at a thin sample, usually a few nanometers thick, to minimize scattering and ensure that the beam can pass through the specimen.
A Hemispherical Electron Energy Analyzer (HEEA) is an analytical instrument used in surface science and materials characterization to analyze the energy distribution of electrons emitted from a sample. It is particularly useful in techniques like photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES). ### Key Features of Hemispherical Electron Energy Analyzers: 1. **Design**: The analyzer typically consists of two hemispherical electrodes that create an electric field.
Penning ionization is a process where an atom or molecule is ionized through collisions with an excited metastable atom or molecule, typically an inert gas like helium or neon in a metastable state. In this process, the metastable state of the atom has a higher energy compared to the ground state, allowing it to transfer energy to the target atom or molecule leading to ionization.
Photoemission Electron Microscopy (PEEM) is a sophisticated imaging technique that combines elements of photoemission spectroscopy and electron microscopy to obtain detailed information about the electronic properties of materials at the nanoscale. It allows researchers to visualize and analyze the distribution of electronic states and surface structures with high spatial resolution. The principle of PEEM is based on the photoelectric effect, where incident lightâtypically ultraviolet (UV) or X-ray radiationâexcites electrons from the material's surface.
Electroreflectance is an optical characterization technique used to study the electronic properties of materials, particularly semiconductors and thin films. It involves applying an electric field to a material while measuring the reflectivity of light that is incident on the sample. The change in reflectivity as a function of the applied electric field provides insights into the energy levels, band structure, and other electronic properties of the material.
An electrostatic lens is a device used in electron optics to focus and control the trajectories of charged particles, like electrons, using electrostatic fields. The lens works on principles of electrostatics to manipulate the paths of charged particles, similar to how optical lenses direct light. ### Key Features: 1. **Principle of Operation**: Electrostatic lenses typically involve the application of electric fields generated by charged electrodes.
Ellipsometry is an optical technique used to measure the thickness and optical properties of thin films. It is based on the principle of polarized light and how its polarization state changes upon reflection from a sample surface. The technique is particularly sensitive to changes in film thickness, material composition, and refractive index, making it valuable in various fields, including materials science, semiconductor fabrication, and nanotechnology.
The Ellis R. Lippincott Award is an honor presented by the American Association of Law Libraries (AALL). It recognizes significant contributions to the field of legal information and law librarianship, typically through excellence in legal research, teaching, and the development of legal information resources. Named after a prominent figure in law librarianship, the award underscores the importance of innovation, leadership, and dedication in legal information services.
Energy levels refer to the fixed energies an electron can have when it is in an atom or other quantum system. In quantum mechanics, electrons exist in discrete energy states, each corresponding to a different level of energy. Hereâs a breakdown of the concept: 1. **Quantization**: In an atom, electrons cannot occupy just any energy level; instead, they can only exist in specific, quantized energy levels. This is a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics.
The Federation of Analytical Chemistry and Spectroscopy Societies (FACSS) is an organization that unites various professional societies in the fields of analytical chemistry and spectroscopy. Established to promote collaboration and exchange of information among different disciplines and practitioners, FACSS serves as a platform for fostering advancements in analytical techniques, instrumentation, and applications. FACSS hosts annual meetings, known for featuring a diverse program of presentations, workshops, and networking opportunities for professionals, researchers, and students in analytical chemistry and related fields.
Fellgett's advantage, also known as the multiplex advantage, refers to the performance benefit gained by using multiple channels or detectors in a spectroscopic measurement system. This concept is particularly relevant in optical and infrared spectroscopy, especially when comparing different types of spectrometers. In traditional scanning spectrometers, the measurement is taken sequentially for each wavelength, leading to longer measurement times, especially when scanning across a broad wavelength range.
Ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) is a technique used to study the magnetic properties of ferromagnetic materials. It involves the interaction of microwave-frequency electromagnetic radiation with the magnetic moments of a ferromagnet, typically at resonant frequencies that depend on the material's magnetic properties. When a magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnet, the magnetic moments (spins) of electrons within the material tend to align with the field.
Flickering spectroscopy is not a widely recognized term in the field of spectroscopic techniques, so itâs possible that it could refer to a newer approach or a specific application that hasnât gained widespread prominence in scientific literature as of my last knowledge update in October 2021. Spectroscopy itself is a technique used to analyze the interaction of light with matter, providing insights into the properties of substances based on their absorption, emission, or scattering of light.
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is a powerful and sensitive technique used to study the dynamics of molecules in a solution at the nanometer scale. It is based on the principles of fluorescence, where the fluctuations in the intensity of fluorescent light emitted by molecules are analyzed to extract information about their concentration, diffusion, and interactions.
Fluorescence Cross-Correlation Spectroscopy (FCCS) is a sophisticated optical technique used to study molecular interactions and dynamics at the single-molecule level. It combines principles from fluorescence spectroscopy and correlation methods to provide insights into the behavior of fluorescently labeled molecules in a solution. ### Key Concepts of FCCS: 1. **Fluorescence**: FCCS involves the use of fluorescent probes that emit light upon excitation. These probes can be attached to different molecules of interest.
Fluorescence spectroscopy is an analytical technique used to measure the fluorescence emitted by a substance after it has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. This technique is based on the principle of fluorescence, where certain molecules (fluorophores) absorb light at a specific wavelength and subsequently emit light at a longer wavelength.
The term "forbidden mechanism" can have different meanings depending on the context in which it is used. Here are a few interpretations across different fields: 1. **Physics and Chemistry**: In these disciplines, a "forbidden mechanism" often refers to a reaction pathway or process that is not allowed under the laws of conservation or quantum mechanics. For example, in nuclear physics, certain decay processes may be classified as "forbidden" if they do not obey the selection rules governing allowed transitions.
Force spectroscopy is a technique used to study the mechanical properties of materials at the nanoscale by measuring the forces that arise during the interaction of a probe with a sample. It typically involves a sharp tip, often mounted on a cantilever, that interacts with a sample surface. The force exerted between the tip and the sample is measured as a function of distance, allowing researchers to obtain detailed information about the sampleâs mechanical properties, such as elasticity, adhesion, and friction.
Fourier-transform spectroscopy (FTS) is an analytical technique used to obtain the spectrum of a substance by measuring the intensity of light as a function of wavelength or frequency. The core principle of FTS is the application of Fourier transform mathematics to process the data collected from spectroscopic measurements. Hereâs how it works in a nutshell: 1. **Interferometry**: FTS typically employs an interferometer, such as a Michelson interferometer, to split an incoming light beam into two paths.
The Franck-Condon principle is a fundamental concept in molecular spectroscopy that pertains to the behavior of molecules during electronic transitions. It provides insight into why certain electronic transitions are favored over others in terms of their ability to absorb or emit light. The principle is based on the idea that during an electronic transition, such as the absorption or emission of a photon, the nuclei of the molecules do not have time to move significantly due to the very short timescales involved in electronic transitions.
A frequency comb is a tool used in physics and engineering that consists of a series of discrete, evenly spaced frequency lines or modes. It is typically generated by mode-locked lasers, which produce pulses of light at regular intervals. These pulses correspond to frequencies that are harmonically related, creating a "comb-like" spectrum of frequency lines when viewed in the frequency domain.
Functional magnetic resonance spectroscopy (fMRS) is a neuroimaging technique that combines elements of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). While fMRI is primarily used to measure changes in blood flow and identify brain activity associated with various tasks or stimuli, MRS focuses on quantifying the concentration of specific metabolites in the brain.
The term "fundamental series" can refer to various concepts depending on the context in which it is used. Here are a few potential contexts: 1. **Mathematics**: In mathematics, particularly in the context of series and sequences, a "fundamental series" might refer to a series that serves as a basic or foundational example for studying properties of convergence, divergence, or other characteristics of series in analysis.
G-strain, often referred to in the context of aviation and high-acceleration environments, is a type of physical strain that results from exposure to gravitational forces (G-forces). When an individual experiences high G-forces, such as during rapid acceleration, sharp turns, or high-speed maneuvers, their body can undergo significant mechanical stress.
The GF method, or the Galerkin Finite Element method, is a numerical technique used for solving differential equations, particularly in the fields of engineering and applied mathematics. It is a type of finite element method (FEM) that combines the Galerkin methodâwhich is a technique for converting a continuous problem (like a differential equation) into a discrete oneâwith the finite element analysis framework.
Gamma spectroscopy is an analytical technique used to measure and analyze the energy and intensity of gamma-ray radiation emitted by radioactive materials. This method is widely utilized in various fields, including nuclear physics, environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics, and radioactive waste management, among others. ### Key Concepts of Gamma Spectroscopy: 1. **Gamma Rays**: Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation emitted during radioactive decay. They have no mass or charge, making them highly penetrating and difficult to shield.
Gas chromatographyâvacuum ultraviolet spectroscopy (GC-VUV) is an analytical technique that combines gas chromatography (GC) with vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) spectroscopy to separate and identify chemical compounds in a sample. ### Key Components: 1. **Gas Chromatography (GC)**: This part of the technique is used for the separation of volatile compounds in a mixture.
Gas in the context of scattering media absorption spectroscopy refers to a state of matter in which particles, such as molecules or atoms, exist in a well-dispersed manner with relatively large spaces between them, allowing them to move freely. In spectroscopy, particularly absorption spectroscopy, gases can absorb specific wavelengths of light, leading to characteristic absorption spectra that can be used to identify and quantify the presence of certain substances.
"Globar" can refer to different concepts or entities depending on the context, but it is most commonly known as a type of thermal radiation source used in various scientific and industrial applications. 1. **Globar (Thermal Radiation Source)**: This is a silicon carbide rod that is heated to produce a broad spectrum of infrared radiation. It is often used in spectroscopic applications, such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), where it serves as a stable and consistent source of infrared light.
Grating-coupled interferometry is a technique used in the field of optics and photonics to analyze the properties of light and its interactions with different materials. This method typically involves the use of a diffraction grating, which is an optical component with a periodic structure that disperses light into its component wavelengths. In grating-coupled interferometry, light is directed onto a grating, where it is diffracted into multiple orders of diffraction.
A Grotrian diagram is a visual representation used in spectroscopy and quantum mechanics to illustrate the energy levels of a particular atom or molecule and the transitions between them. It provides a graphical way to depict the electronic states of atoms and the allowed transitions (e.g., radiative transitions) that occur as electrons move between these states. In a Grotrian diagram: - **Energy Levels**: The vertical axis represents energy levels, where higher positions indicate higher energy states.
HITRAN, which stands for the High-resolution Transmission molecular absorption database, is a comprehensive database that contains information on the absorption and emission spectra of various molecules in the atmosphere. Developed primarily for use in atmospheric science and remote sensing, HITRAN provides data on the spectroscopic parameters of gases that are critical for interpreting and modeling the transmission of light in the atmosphere.
Heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) spectroscopy is a two-dimensional NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) technique primarily used for the analysis of complex organic molecules, particularly those containing multiple types of nuclei, such as carbon-13 (\(^{13}C\)) and proton (\(^1H\)). The HSQC method allows for the correlation of these different nuclei, enabling chemists to better understand molecular structures and interactions.
The history of spectroscopy is a fascinating journey through science and technology that spans several centuries. Spectroscopy, the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation, has roots in early optical experiments and has evolved into a key analytical technique across various scientific fields. ### Early Beginnings (17th - 19th Century) 1. **Isaac Newton (1671)**: The foundation of spectroscopy can be traced back to Newton's experiments with prisms.
Hund's cases refer to a classification system used in atomic physics and quantum mechanics to describe the coupling of angular momentum in multi-electron atoms. This system helps in understanding the energy levels and spectral lines of atoms based on their electronic configurations.
Hund's rules are a set of guidelines used in quantum chemistry and atomic physics to determine the ground state of an atom or ion's electron configuration, particularly for multi-electron systems. These rules help predict how electrons fill orbitals in an atom. The rules are as follows: 1. **Hund's First Rule:** For a given electron configuration, the term with the highest multiplicity has the lowest energy.
Hydrogenâdeuterium exchange (H/D exchange) is a chemical process that involves the replacement of hydrogen atoms (H) in a molecule with deuterium atoms (D), which are isotopes of hydrogen. Deuterium has one proton and one neutron in its nucleus, while ordinary hydrogen has only one proton. This exchange is a valuable technique in various fields such as chemistry, biochemistry, and analytical science, as it can provide insights into molecular structure, dynamics, and interactions.
Hyperchromicity refers to an increase in the absorbance of light (usually in the ultraviolet-visible spectrum) by a substance, typically nucleic acids like DNA or RNA, when they undergo conformational changes. This phenomenon often occurs during processes such as DNA melting (denaturation), where double-stranded DNA unwinds into single strands.
A hypsochromic shift, also known as a "blue shift," refers to a change in the position of an absorption or emission spectral band towards shorter wavelengths (higher energy) in the electromagnetic spectrum. This phenomenon can occur in various contexts, such as in spectroscopy, including UV-Vis spectroscopy, where the energy of absorbed or emitted light increases.
IRsweep is a company that specializes in the development and production of advanced infrared (IR) spectroscopy systems. Their technology focuses on the high-resolution measurement of molecular gases and other substances using tunable laser technology. IRsweep's products are commonly used in fields such as environmental monitoring, industrial applications, and scientific research. One of their key innovations is the ability to provide fast and precise gas analysis by utilizing a range of tunable infrared lasers.
Imaging spectroscopy is an advanced remote sensing technique that combines imaging and spectroscopy to capture and analyze the spectral information of an object's surface across a wide range of wavelengths. Unlike traditional imaging, which typically only captures information in visible light or a few discrete bands, imaging spectroscopy acquires data across many narrow, contiguous spectral bands, allowing for detailed analysis of the materials' properties and compositions.
Infrared photodissociation spectroscopy (IRPD) is a powerful analytical technique used primarily in molecular spectroscopy to study the structure and dynamics of molecules, particularly ions and complexes. Here's a brief overview of the method: ### Principles: 1. **Infrared Absorption:** The technique relies on the absorption of infrared (IR) radiation by molecules. Molecules have specific vibrational modes that correspond to particular wavelengths of IR light. When IR light is absorbed, it can excite these vibrational modes.
The InglisâTeller equation is a mathematical expression used in the field of atomic physics and quantum mechanics to describe the behavior of electrons in a quantum system, particularly in the context of atomic ionization processes. It is named after physicists A. R. Inglis and R. Teller, who developed the equation to provide insights into the ionization of atoms in strong electric fields.
Internal conversion is a non-radiative process in chemistry and physics where an excited molecule transitions to a lower energy state (usually the ground state) without the emission of a photon. Instead of releasing energy as light, the molecule dissipates the energy as vibrational or thermal energy to its surroundings. In more detail, when a molecule absorbs energy and moves to an excited electronic state, it may undergo various relaxation processes to return to a lower energy state.
Intervalence charge transfer (IVCT) refers to a molecular electronic transition in which an electron is transferred between two metal centers that have different oxidation states within a complex, typically in mixed-valence compounds. This type of charge transfer occurs in systems where there are two or more closely spaced metal ions, and at least one is in a different oxidation state from the others.
Isomeric shift (or isotopic shift) is a phenomenon observed in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), particularly in the context of Mössbauer spectroscopy. It refers to the change in energy of gamma rays emitted or absorbed by a nucleus when it is in a different chemical or physical environment compared to a reference state. In the case of Mössbauer spectroscopy, the isomeric shift is primarily influenced by the electronic environment surrounding the nucleus, particularly the s-electron density at the nucleus.
An isosbestic point is a specific wavelength in a spectroscopic measurement where the absorbance (or transmittance) of the light remains constant, regardless of the concentration of the absorbing species involved in a chemical equilibrium. This phenomenon often occurs in systems where two or more species are interconverting, such as in acid-base reactions, conformational changes, or the binding of ligands to a receptor. In a typical situation involving a chemical equilibrium between two forms (e.g.
Isotopic labeling is a technique used in various scientific fields, including chemistry, biology, and medicine, to trace and study the behavior of molecules by incorporating isotopes into their structure. Isotopes are variants of a chemical element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, resulting in different atomic masses. In isotopic labeling, one or more atoms in a molecule are replaced with isotopes of the same element.
JCAMP-DX is a data format used for the exchange and representation of spectroscopic data, particularly in the field of analytical chemistry. It is a standardized format designed to facilitate the sharing and storage of spectral data, such as that from infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and mass spectrometry. The JCAMP-DX format is characterized by its use of ASCII text files that include a set of standard headers and data points.
A Jablonski diagram is a graphical representation of the electronic states of a molecule and the transitions between these states, typically used in the field of photophysics and photochemistry. It depicts the energy levels of the singlet and triplet states of a molecule, along with the various types of electronic transitions and the associated processes.
A Kerr frequency comb is a type of optical frequency comb that is generated through the process of the Kerr effect in nonlinear optical media. The Kerr effect refers to a phenomenon where the refractive index of a material changes in response to the intensity of light passing through it. When high-intensity light waves are introduced into such a medium, they can generate multiple new frequency components, resulting in a comb-like spectrum of optical frequencies.
The Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao Memorial Lecture Award is an honor awarded to individuals in recognition of their contributions to the field of anatomy and medicine in India. It commemorates the legacy of Dr. Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao, who was a prominent figure in anatomy education and research. The award typically involves a lecture or presentation delivered by the recipient on a specified topic related to anatomy.
Kramers' law, named after physicist Hendrik Anthony Kramers, primarily refers to a concept in the theory of reaction rates and transition state theory in chemical kinetics. This law provides a framework for understanding how a system transitions from a metastable state to a stable state, particularly in the context of chemical reactions where a reactant must overcome an energy barrier to transform into products.
The LambâMössbauer factor, often denoted as \( f \), is a key concept in the field of condensed matter physics and spectroscopy, particularly in relation to Mössbauer spectroscopy. It describes the fraction of the total intensity of a Mössbauer spectrum that is related to atoms that are well-ordered and not experiencing significant vibrational displacement or thermal motion.
Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is an analytical technique used to identify the elemental composition of materials. It involves focusing a high-energy laser pulse onto the surface of a sample, creating a localized plasma. This process can be summarized in the following steps: 1. **Laser Interaction**: A focused laser pulse is directed at the sample material. The intense energy of the laser causes the material to ablate, creating a small volume of plasma.
Laser-Induced Incandescence (LII) is a diagnostic technique used primarily in the study of combustion and particulate matter in various environments. It involves the use of a laser to excite particles, such as soot or other nanoparticles, to a high energy state. When these particles absorb the laser energy, they become incandescent, emitting light as they return to their lower energy states.
Laser diffraction analysis is a widely used technique for measuring the size distribution of particles in a sample. This method is based on the principle of diffraction, which occurs when a beam of light interacts with particles. Hereâs how it works and its key aspects: ### Principles of Laser Diffraction 1. **Laser Beam**: A coherent light source, typically a laser, emits a beam of light that is directed towards a sample containing particles.
Light Scattering Spectroscopy (LSS) is an analytical technique that involves studying the scattering of light by particles or molecules in a sample. It is primarily used to characterize the size, shape, and distribution of small particles, as well as to analyze the properties of macromolecules, such as proteins and polymers, in solution.
Linear dichroism (LD) is a spectroscopic technique used to study the orientation of molecules in a sample by measuring the difference in absorbance of light polarized in different directions. It is particularly useful for analyzing macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, and some types of polymers. In a typical LD experiment, a sample is illuminated with linearly polarized light, and the absorbance is measured for two orthogonal polarization directions (usually parallel and perpendicular to a particular molecular axis).
A list of spectroscopists typically includes notable scientists and researchers who have made significant contributions to the field of spectroscopy. Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation, and it has applications in various fields such as chemistry, physics, astronomy, and materials science.
Littrow expansion, named after the Austrian physicist Heinrich Littrow, is a method used in optics and diffraction-grating theory. It specifically pertains to the analysis of light diffraction by a grating at a specific angle, known as the Littrow angle. In the context of a diffraction grating, the Littrow expansion occurs when the incoming light is focused so that the angle of incidence equals the angle of diffraction for one of the diffracted orders.
The term "magic angle" in the context of Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) relates to the angle at which a sample is tilted to optimize the resolution and signal quality in the measurement of energy losses in electrons transmitted through a thin material. In EELS, the "magic angle" typically refers to an angle of approximately 54.
Magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) is a spectroscopic technique that measures the difference in absorption of left-handed and right-handed circularly polarized light in the presence of a magnetic field. This phenomenon is commonly observed in materials that have unpaired electrons and is particularly relevant in the study of transition metal complexes, rare earth elements, and paramagnetic species.
Mass-analyzed ion-kinetic-energy spectrometry (MIKES) is an analytical technique used in mass spectrometry to provide detailed information about the kinetic energy distribution of ions. The method involves measuring the kinetic energy of ions after they are generated and manipulated in a mass spectrometer. MIKES can be particularly useful for studying the dynamics of chemical reactions, fragmentation processes, and the conformational states of molecules in the gas phase.
Matrix isolation is a powerful experimental technique used in chemistry and physics to study reactive species, such as free radicals, small molecules, and unstable compounds, in a controlled environment. The fundamental idea behind matrix isolation is to trap these species at very low temperatures (typically in the range of 10 to 20 K) within an inert solid matrix, such as rare gas (like argon or neon) or other inert solids.
MaxwellâWagnerâSillars (MWS) polarization is a phenomenon that occurs in heterogeneous materials, particularly in dielectric materials, where different phases or components have distinct electrical properties. This type of polarization arises due to the accumulation of charges at interfaces between different materials, leading to the creation of polarization charges. The MWS effect is characterized by two main aspects: 1. **Heterogeneous Media**: The materials involved have different dielectric constants and conductivities.
The McCumber relation, named after Eric McCumber, is an important concept in the field of quantum optics and quantum information. It describes the relationship between the noise and the signal in quantum systems, particularly in the context of the measurement process. The relation is often used in discussions of quantum measurements and the trade-offs between the information gained and the disturbance caused by the measurement.
Micro-spectrophotometry is an analytical technique used to measure the absorbance, transmittance, or reflectance of very small samples, often at the microscopic scale. This method utilizes the principles of UV-Vis (ultraviolet-visible) spectroscopy, allowing scientists to study the optical properties of materials or biological samples with minimal sample consumption.
A microprobe is a scientific instrument used to analyze the composition of small samples of material at a microscale. It employs various techniques to determine the chemical and physical properties of materials, often down to the level of individual grains or particles. Microprobes can be used in a wide range of fields, including materials science, geology, biology, and electronics.
Microwave spectroscopy is a technique used to study the interactions of molecules with microwave radiation. It is primarily concerned with the rotational energy levels of molecules, which correspond to transitions between different rotational states. Microwave spectroscopy involves exposing a sample to microwave radiation and measuring the absorption or emission of this radiation as the molecules transition between their rotational states. The technique takes advantage of the fact that different molecules have unique rotational spectra, allowing researchers to identify and characterize them based on their rotational transitions.
Miro Analytical is a company that specializes in providing analytical solutions and services, particularly in the field of process analytics and monitoring. They focus on developing advanced technologies and instruments that enable real-time analysis of chemical processes, which can be crucial for industries such as pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals, and specialty chemicals. Their products and services often aim to enhance process efficiency, product quality, and safety by providing accurate and timely data about ongoing production processes.
The Molecular Hamiltonian is a mathematical operator used in quantum mechanics that describes the total energy of a molecular system. It is a fundamental part of quantum chemistry, as it helps in understanding the electronic structure of molecules. The Hamiltonian incorporates various contributions to the energy of a molecule, including kinetic and potential energy terms.
Molecular electronic transition refers to a process in which a molecule absorbs or emits energy, resulting in a change in its electronic energy state. This typically occurs when electrons in certain molecular orbitals move from a lower energy state (such as a ground state) to a higher energy state (an excited state) or vice versa. These transitions are fundamental to understanding various phenomena in chemistry and physics, including spectroscopy, photochemistry, and the behavior of materials when exposed to light.
Molecular term symbols are a notation used in molecular spectroscopy and quantum chemistry to describe the electronic states of molecules. These symbols provide important information about the energy levels and symmetries of molecular states which are pivotal in understanding electronic transitions, bonding characteristics, and other physical properties of molecules. A molecular term symbol generally follows the notation of: \[ ^{2S+1}L_J \] where: - **S** is the total spin angular momentum quantum number.
Molecular vibration refers to the oscillatory motion of atoms within a molecule around their equilibrium positions. This phenomenon occurs because molecular bonds can be thought of as springs that can stretch and compress, allowing the atoms to move closer together or further apart. During vibration, different types of motions can occur, including: 1. **Stretching**: This can be further divided into: - **Symmetric stretching**: Both bonds are elongated or shortened simultaneously.
A triatomic molecule is a molecule that consists of three atoms. These atoms can be of the same element or different elements. Triatomic molecules can be classified into two categories: 1. **Homodiatomic Molecules**: Molecules where all three atoms are identical, such as ozone (Oâ).
Vibronic coupling refers to the interaction between electronic states and vibrational states in a molecular system. This phenomenon is crucial for understanding various processes in molecular physics and chemistry, including spectroscopy, photochemistry, and energy transfer. In more detail, vibronic coupling arises when there is a significant overlap between electronic states that leads to the mixing of their corresponding vibrational states. This interaction can occur due to changes in the molecular geometry that happen when electrons transition between different energy levels.
A monochromator is an optical device that isolates a specific wavelength or narrow band of wavelengths from a broader spectrum of light. It typically consists of a light source, a dispersive element, and a detector. The fundamental purpose of a monochromator is to take incoming polychromatic light (light that contains multiple wavelengths) and separate it so that only the desired wavelength or range of wavelengths is transmitted to the output.
Motional narrowing is a phenomenon observed in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. It refers to the reduction in the linewidth of spectral peaks when the motion of the molecules or particles under investigation occurs at a rate that is fast compared to the interaction timescale associated with the magnetic environment.
Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance (MP-SPR) is an advanced technique used to study biomolecular interactions and physical properties at interfaces with high sensitivity and specificity. It is an extension of traditional surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technology, which measures changes in refractive index near metal surfaces caused by biomolecular binding events.
Multiangle light scattering (MALS) is a technique used to characterize the size, shape, and molecular weight of macromolecules in solution, such as proteins, polymers, and nanoparticles. This method is based on the scattering of light at multiple angles as it interacts with particles suspended in a liquid.
Multipass spectroscopic absorption cells, also known as multipass cells or multipass absorbers, are optical devices used in spectroscopy to enhance the measurement of absorbance by increasing the path length of light passing through a sample medium. This is particularly useful in applications where the concentration of the absorbing species is very low, making detection challenging.
Multivariate optical computing (MOC) is an advanced computing paradigm that uses optical systems to perform computations, leveraging the unique properties of light. It involves the simultaneous processing of multiple variables or data dimensions, making it particularly well-suited for tasks that require handling complex, multidimensional data sets. ### Key Features of Multivariate Optical Computing: 1. **Optical Processing**: MOC uses light (usually lasers) to manipulate data.
A Multivariate Optical Element (MOE) is an advanced optical device designed to manipulate light in sophisticated ways, often used in applications involving spectroscopy, imaging, and sensing. Unlike traditional optical elements that simply focus, collimate, or reflect light, MOEs utilize complex patterns or structures to perform multiple functions simultaneously or to achieve a specific outcome based on the properties of the incoming light.
Muon spin spectroscopy (ΌSR) is a powerful experimental technique used to investigate the magnetic properties and dynamics of materials at the atomic level. It involves the injection of positively charged muons (Ό^+), which are elementary particles similar to electrons but with a greater mass. When muons are implanted into a sample, they interact with the local magnetic fields in the material. The key aspects of ΌSR include: 1. **Muon Injection**: A beam of muons is directed toward the sample.
The Nephelauxetic effect refers to the phenomenon where the presence of certain ligands in coordination complexes reduces the bond strength and the energy separation between the d-orbitals of a metal ion. This effect is commonly observed in transition metal complexes. Specifically, when a metal ion is coordinated to ligands, the electrostatic repulsion between the electron clouds of the ligands and the d-electrons of the metal is lessened.
Neutron backscattering is a technique used in materials science and condensed matter physics to probe the structure and dynamics of materials at the atomic or molecular level. This technique involves the scattering of neutrons from a sample, where neutrons are directed at the sample and measure how they are deflected or backscattered by the atoms within the material.
Neutron spectroscopy is a technique used in condensed matter physics and materials science to study the dynamics and structure of materials at the atomic and molecular levels. It utilizes neutrons, which are neutral particles found in atomic nuclei, to probe the properties of various materials.
The NicolsonâRossâWeir (NRW) method is a numerical technique used primarily in computational fluid dynamics and heat transfer to solve the unsteady-state heat conduction equations, particularly within a finite difference framework. It is a finite difference method that is particularly suited for solving parabolic partial differential equations. **Key Features of the NicolsonâRossâWeir Method:** 1.
Noise-immune cavity-enhanced optical heterodyne molecular spectroscopy (NICE-OHMS) is a highly sensitive analytical technique used to detect and characterize molecular species. It combines several advanced concepts from optics and spectroscopy to achieve high sensitivity and selectivity in molecular detection. ### Key Components of NICE-OHMS: 1. **Cavity Enhancement**: NICE-OHMS utilizes an optical cavity to enhance the interaction between light and the molecules being studied.
Nuclear spectroscopy is a branch of spectroscopy that focuses on the study of the energy levels and transitions of atomic nuclei. It involves the analysis of the interactions between nuclear states and various radiation forms, particularly gamma rays, which are emitted during nuclear decays or transitions. The primary techniques used in nuclear spectroscopy include gamma-ray spectroscopy, neutron activation analysis, and various forms of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy tailored to nuclear states.
Nucleic acid quantitation refers to the measurement of the concentration and purity of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, in a sample. This process is essential in various fields including molecular biology, genetics, and biotechnology, as accurate quantitation is crucial for applications like PCR (polymerase chain reaction), cloning, sequencing, and gene expression studies.
Operando spectroscopy refers to a set of analytical techniques that allow for the study of materials and chemical processes in real-time under their actual operating conditions. This approach is particularly valuable in fields like catalysis, battery research, and material science, where understanding the behavior of a system during its operation is crucial for optimizing performance and developing better materials.
Optically Detected Magnetic Resonance (ODMR) is a diagnostic technique used primarily in materials science and quantum computing to investigate the properties of materials at the atomic or molecular level, particularly those containing paramagnetic centers (atoms or ions with unpaired electrons). The method combines optical techniques with magnetic resonance to obtain information about the electronic and structural properties of these materials.
An optode is a device used to measure chemical parameters, primarily dissolved oxygen and other analytes in various environments, including water bodies and biological systems. It combines optical technologies with a sensing element that responds to specific chemical reactions. Optodes typically consist of: 1. **Sensing Layer:** This layer contains fluorescent dyes that change their properties in response to the presence of specific analytes.
An Orgel diagram is a graphical representation used in the field of coordination chemistry and inorganic chemistry to describe the electronic states of transition metal complexes. Named after the chemist Alfred Orgel, it is particularly useful for illustrating the splitting of d-orbitals in a metal complex and how these energy levels can be affected by the coordination environment around the metal ion (such as the ligands attached to it).
Oscillator strength is a dimensionless quantity used in spectroscopy to quantify the probability of absorption or emission of electromagnetic radiation by an atom or molecule during a transition between energy levels. It is particularly important in the study of electronic transitions in atoms and molecules.
Perturbed Angular Correlation (PAC) is a nuclear spectroscopy technique used to study the hyperfine interactions of nuclei, particularly through the observation of the angular correlations of emitted gamma rays. The method is based on the interaction of a probing nucleus with its surrounding environment, allowing researchers to investigate various properties of materials at the atomic or molecular level.
Phosphorescence is a type of photoluminescence related to fluorescence. It occurs when a material absorbs light or electromagnetic radiation and then re-emits it over a longer period. Unlike fluorescence, which involves the immediate re-emission of light (typically within nanoseconds), phosphorescence involves a delayed re-emission that can last from microseconds to several hours or even days.
Photo-reflectance (PR) is a technique used in materials science and semiconductor research to probe the optical properties of materials, particularly thin films and semiconductor layers. It involves measuring the reflectance of light from a sample as a function of wavelength or energy, while the sample is illuminated with modulated light. This technique is particularly sensitive to changes in the electronic structure of the material.
The photoacoustic effect is a phenomenon in which materials absorb light and subsequently emit acoustic waves (sound waves) as a result of thermal expansion. This process occurs when a material absorbs photons from a light source (usually a laser), leading to a localized temperature increase. The rapid thermal expansion due to the absorbed energy creates mechanical stress in the material, which produces sound waves.
Photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) is an analytical technique that combines aspects of both optical spectroscopy and acoustic detection. It is based on the photoacoustic effect, which occurs when a material absorbs light (usually laser light) and then undergoes a rapid thermal expansion, resulting in the generation of acoustic waves (sound). ### Key Principles of Photoacoustic Spectroscopy: 1. **Light Absorption:** - The sample is illuminated with modulated light at specific wavelengths.
Photoelectron photoion coincidence spectroscopy (PEPICO) is a technique used in molecular physics and chemistry to study the electronic structure and dynamics of molecules. It combines two powerful methods: photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) and photoionization spectroscopy. ### Key Components of PEPICO: 1. **Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES):** - This technique involves the ionization of molecules by ultraviolet or X-ray photons, resulting in the ejection of electrons from the molecules.
Photoionization is a process in which an atom or molecule absorbs a photon of light and subsequently ejects one or more of its electrons, resulting in the formation of an ion. This phenomenon is crucial in various fields such as astrophysics, chemistry, and plasma physics. The process can be described as follows: 1. **Photon Absorption**: An atom or molecule absorbs a photon whose energy is greater than or equal to the ionization energy of the atom or molecule.
Photoluminescence is the process by which a material absorbs photons (light) and then re-emits them. This phenomenon is a form of photonic emission that occurs when a substance absorbs energy, usually from ultraviolet (UV) or visible light, and subsequently emits light of a longer wavelength.
Photoluminescence excitation (PLE) is a technique used to investigate the electronic properties of materials, particularly semiconductors and quantum dots. In this method, a sample is illuminated with varying wavelengths of light (typically in the ultraviolet or visible range) to excite electrons from the valence band to the conduction band. As the sample absorbs photons, it can re-emit them at longer wavelengths, which is known as photoluminescence.
Photopyroelectric refers to a phenomenon related to the interaction between light (photons) and temperature changes (pyroelectric effect) in certain materials. In essence, it combines photonic and thermal effects to generate an electrical signal. Hereâs a breakdown of the concept: 1. **Pyroelectric Effect**: This is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in response to a change in temperature.
Photothermal microspectroscopy is a technique that combines principles of photothermal effect with microscopy and spectroscopy to study materials and biological samples at high spatial resolution. This method is particularly effective for characterizing the optical and thermal properties of materials at the nanoscale. ### Key Features of Photothermal Microspectroscopy: 1. **Photothermal Effect**: When a material absorbs light (usually in the form of a laser), it can cause localized heating.
Photothermal spectroscopy is an analytical technique used to study the interaction between light and matter, particularly focusing on the thermal responses of materials when they absorb light. This method combines principles of spectroscopy and thermal analysis to provide insights into the properties of materials. ### Key Concepts: 1. **Principle of Operation**: - When a material absorbs light, it can convert the energy from the light into heat, leading to a temperature rise.
Plasmonic nanoparticles are nanoscale particles that can support surface plasmon resonances, which are collective oscillations of free electrons at the surface of a metal in response to incident light. These particles are typically made of noble metals, such as gold, silver, or copper, which exhibit strong plasmonic effects due to their high conductivity and electron mobility.
Polarization spectroscopy is a technique for analyzing the properties of light interaction with matter, particularly in terms of how the light's polarization state changes upon interacting with a sample. This technique leverages the fact that the scattering, absorption, and emission of light can be dependent on its polarization, providing valuable information about the molecular and electronic structure of a sample. ### Key Concepts 1.
Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy (PAS) is a technique used to investigate the microstructural properties of materials at the atomic level by utilizing positrons, which are the antiparticles of electrons. The basic principle of PAS is based on the interactions between positrons and electrons in a material. Here's how it works: 1. **Positron Injection**: A source of positrons emits these particles which are injected into a sample material.
A quantum jump, also known as a quantum leap, refers to a sudden transition of an electron from one energy level to another within an atom or molecule. This phenomenon is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics. In more detail, when an electron absorbs energy (for example, from a photon), it can move from a lower energy state (or orbital) to a higher energy state. This transition is instantaneous and does not occur gradually; rather, the electron "jumps" between discrete energy levels.
Quantum logic spectroscopy is a technique used to study the quantum properties of atoms and molecules by employing the principles of quantum mechanics and quantum information. It combines techniques from both quantum optics and quantum information science to provide insights into the internal states of quantum systems, typically atoms or ions. In essence, quantum logic spectroscopy involves the following key components: 1. **Quantum States:** It utilizes well-defined quantum states, such as those of trapped ions or neutral atoms.
Quantum yield is a measure of the efficiency of a photophysical or photochemical process, defined as the ratio of the number of events of a specific type (such as emitted photons, formed molecules, etc.) to the number of photons absorbed. It is a dimensionless quantity often expressed as a decimal or a percentage.
A Qubit fluorometer is a type of optical instrument used primarily in molecular biology and biochemistry for quantifying nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and proteins. The Qubit fluorometer utilizes fluorescent dyes that selectively bind to DNA, RNA, or proteins, allowing for high sensitivity and specificity in detection.
The Racah parameters are a set of coefficients that appear in the theoretical treatment of the interactions among the electrons in a multi-electron atom or ion, particularly when discussing the effects of electron-electron interactions on the energy levels and the spectra of transition metal complexes and rare-earth ions. These parameters are named after the physicist Giovanni Racah.
Radiofrequency Echographic Multi Spectrometry (REMS) is a non-invasive imaging technique used primarily in the medical field for the assessment of tissue characteristics. It combines principles from ultrasound imaging and radiofrequency analysis to provide detailed information about tissue composition, structure, and stiffness. The REMS technique involves transmitting radiofrequency signals into tissues and analyzing the resulting echoes. It can differentiate between various types of tissues based on their physical properties, such as density and elasticity.
Reflectometric Interference Spectroscopy (RIfS) is an optical technique used for measuring thin films and surfaces, particularly in the fields of materials science, photonics, and biology. The method is based on the interference of light waves reflected from different layers of a sample, which can include thin films, coatings, or biological materials.
The Renner-Teller effect is a phenomenon in molecular physics and spectroscopy that occurs in polyatomic molecules with degenerate electronic states. It is a blending of the Renner effect and the Teller effect, which describe how molecular vibrations and electronic states interact, leading to splitting of energy levels. Specifically, the Renner-Teller effect is most notable in systems where the degeneracy of electronic states is lifted due to coupling between electronic and vibrational states.
Representative Layer Theory (RLT) is a conceptual framework used primarily in the fields of social sciences and psychology to understand how individuals and groups represent various aspects of their experiences, identities, and social structures. The theory seeks to explain how layers of representation influence perception, behavior, and communication within different contexts. Key components of Representative Layer Theory include: 1. **Layers of Representation**: The theory posits that individuals operate within multiple layers or dimensions of representation.
The term "repulsive state" can have various meanings depending on the context in which it is used. Here are a few interpretations based on different fields: 1. **Physics**: In the context of physics, particularly in discussions of particle interactions, a "repulsive state" might refer to a condition where particles experience a repulsive force due to their charges (for instance, like charges repel) or due to other forces. This can affect their behavior, energy levels, and scattering processes.
Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI) is a sophisticated spectroscopic technique used to study the electronic structure of molecules and ions. It involves the absorption of multiple photons by a target molecule to achieve ionization, while also utilizing resonance to enhance the efficiency of the process.
In analytical chemistry and various scientific fields, the term "response factor" (RF) refers to a measure that expresses how the response of an analytical instrument, such as a spectrometer or chromatograph, correlates with the concentration of a compound of interest in a sample. It is often used in methods such as chromatography and mass spectrometry to quantify substances.
The Reststrahlen effect, or Reststrahlen band, refers to a phenomenon observed in the infrared spectrum of certain materials, particularly crystalline substances. It occurs when there are specific vibrational modes of the material's lattice that strongly absorb infrared radiation, leading to distinct spectral features. In essence, when infrared light interacts with a crystal, some wavelengths are absorbed due to the resonant frequency of the lattice vibrations (phonons), while others are reflected.
Rotational spectroscopy is a technique used to study the rotational motions of molecules by measuring the electromagnetic radiation they emit or absorb, particularly in the microwave region of the spectrum. This method provides detailed information about the molecular structure, including bond lengths and angles, as well as the moments of inertia of the molecules. The fundamental principle behind rotational spectroscopy is based on the fact that molecules can rotate about their axes and that these rotational transitions correspond to specific energy levels.
Rotational-vibrational spectroscopy is a technique used to analyze the rotational and vibrational motions of molecules. This type of spectroscopy combines two fundamental aspects of molecular behavior: 1. **Vibrational Spectroscopy**: This focuses on the vibrational transitions of molecules, which occur when the atoms in a molecule oscillate relative to each other. These vibrations belong to specific modes that depend on the molecular structure. Techniques like infrared (IR) spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy are commonly used to observe vibrational transitions.
Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS) is a powerful analytical technique used to determine the composition and thickness of thin films and layers of materials. It is based on the principles of nuclear physics and involves bombarding a sample with high-energy ions, typically helium ions (alpha particles), which are directed at the material under investigation.
Rydberg ionization spectroscopy is a technique used in atomic and molecular physics to study the properties and behaviors of atoms or molecules at high-energy states, specifically focusing on Rydberg states. Rydberg states are highly excited states of atoms or molecules characterized by principal quantum numbers (n) that are significantly larger than those of ground states. In these states, electrons are further from the nucleus and can exhibit unique properties due to their high angular momentum and reduced electron-nucleus interactions.
A Rydberg molecule is a type of exotic molecule formed from atoms in highly excited electronic states known as Rydberg states. Rydberg atoms are characterized by having one or more electrons in very high principal quantum states, which means these electrons are far from the nucleus and possess a large principal quantum number. This results in unique properties, such as a dramatically increased size and sensitivity to external electric and magnetic fields. Rydberg molecules can form when two or more Rydberg atoms interact.
The SPC file format, which stands for "SPC File" or "Sound File," is primarily associated with audio data and is commonly used in video game emulation and music production. The SPC format is notably employed by the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) for storing music and sound effects. Here are some key points regarding the SPC file format: 1. **Audio Storage**: SPC files contain raw audio data formatted specifically for playback on the SNES hardware.
SRAS stands for Short-Run Aggregate Supply. It represents the total quantity of goods and services that firms in an economy are willing and able to produce at various price levels in the short run, while some factors of production, such as wages, are considered to be fixed. In the short run, production can be adjusted by changing the intensity of how existing resources are utilized; for example, by having workers work overtime or by using existing machinery more intensively.
Saturated absorption spectroscopy is a technique used in atomic and molecular physics to study the properties of atoms or molecules, most commonly with laser light. The technique involves the use of a resonant laser beam to probe specific transitions between energy levels in an atom or molecule.
Saturated spectroscopy, also known as saturation spectroscopy, is a spectroscopic technique that relies on the saturation of optical transitions in a medium, typically a gas or a liquid. In this method, a light beam is used to excite a particular transition in atoms or molecules, and the phenomenon of saturation occurs when the intensity of the light is high enough to significantly populate the excited state, leading to a reduction in the absorption of light at the corresponding wavelength.
Scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) is a powerful technique used in surface science and condensed matter physics to study the electronic properties of materials at the atomic scale. It combines the principles of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and spectroscopy to provide detailed information about the density of electronic states in a sample.
The SchumannâRunge bands refer to a set of molecular absorption bands associated with the electronic transitions of molecular oxygen (Oâ) and, to a lesser extent, ozone (Oâ). These bands are named after the German physicists Hermann Schumann and Wilhelm Runge, who studied these phenomena in the early 20th century. The SchumannâRunge bands occur in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum, usually between 175 nm and 205 nm.
The Second Solar Spectrum refers to a specific aspect of solar radiation that focuses on the polarization and spectral features of light emitted by the Sun. Unlike the more commonly discussed solar spectrum, which pertains to the intensity of light across different wavelengths, the Second Solar Spectrum emphasizes the presence of subtle polarization signals that can contain important information about the solar atmosphere, particularly the layers of the solar atmosphere above the photosphere, such as the chromosphere and the corona.
Selection rules are criteria or guidelines that dictate the allowed or forbidden transitions between quantum states in quantum mechanics and spectroscopy. These rules are used to determine which transitions can occur during processes such as electronic, vibrational, or rotational transitions in molecules, as well as transitions involving photons, such as in absorption or emission of light. In the context of quantum mechanics, selection rules are derived from the intrinsic symmetries of quantum systems and are often associated with changes in certain quantum numbers.
Shape resonance is a phenomenon that occurs in quantum mechanics, particularly in the study of scattering processes. It refers to a temporary trapping of wave function density in a potential well created by the shape of a potential barrier. When particles (such as electrons or nuclei) interact with this potential, certain conditions can lead to an increased likelihood of scattering at specific energies. In a more detailed context, shape resonance happens when the incoming quantum particle has an energy that allows it to temporarily occupy a quasi-bound state.
The Shpolskii matrix refers to a specific type of optical matrix used in the field of spectroscopy, particularly in the study of luminescent materials. It is named after the Russian scientist A. Shpol'skii, who made significant contributions to the understanding of molecular interactions in solid-state systems.
Siegbahn notation is a system used in the field of spectroscopy to designate electronic transitions and the energy levels of atoms, particularly in x-ray spectroscopy. Named after the Swedish physicist Kai Siegbahn, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1981 for his work in this area, the notation provides a systematic way to label the various electron transitions that occur when inner-shell electrons are ejected from an atom.
Single-molecule experiments are techniques used in various fields of scientific researchâparticularly in biophysics and nanotechnologyâthat allow scientists to study individual molecules rather than bulk populations. This approach can provide detailed information that is often obscured in traditional ensemble measurements, where the average behavior of many molecules is studied.
Single colour reflectometry is a method used primarily in the field of optical measurements and material characterization. It involves the reflection of a single wavelength (or color) of light from a surface or material to analyze its properties. This technique is often used to characterize thin films, coatings, surfaces, and other materials. ### Key Components and Principles: 1. **Light Source**: A monochromatic light source (such as a laser or LED) emits light of a specific wavelength.
Singlet fission is a photophysical process in which a single excited state (singlet) of a molecule splits into two triplet states. This process can occur in certain organic molecules, particularly those that have favorable exciton interactions and molecular structures. Hereâs a more detailed breakdown of the phenomenon: 1. **Initial Excitation**: When a molecule absorbs a photon, it can transition from its ground state (S0) to an excited singlet state (S1).
Site-directed spin labeling (SDSL) is a biophysical technique used to study the structure and dynamics of proteins and other biomolecules at the atomic level. It involves the introduction of a spin labelâa stable free radicalâat a specific site in a protein or biomolecule. This label can be introduced to a desired location within the protein using genetic engineering techniques, often by substituting a specific amino acid residue with a cysteine that can then be labeled with a spin label.
The Society for Applied Spectroscopy (SAS) is a professional organization that focuses on the field of spectroscopy, which is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation. Founded in 1947, the society aims to promote and advance the understanding and application of spectroscopic techniques across various disciplines, including chemistry, biology, and materials science. SAS provides a platform for researchers, educators, and professionals to share knowledge, collaborate, and network.
The SommerfeldâKossel displacement law is important in the field of atomic physics and was proposed by Arnold Sommerfeld and Friedrich Kossel. It describes the behavior of electrons in atomic systems, particularly in relation to electron transitions and the emission or absorption of photons when electrons occupy different energy levels. In essence, the law states that the amount of energy absorbed or emitted by an atom when an electron transitions between two energy levels is proportional to the difference in energy between those levels.
Specific Ultraviolet Absorbance (SUVA) is a measure used in water quality analysis, particularly in the study of natural organic matter (NOM) in water sources such as rivers, lakes, and drinking water supplies. It provides insight into the concentration and characteristics of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in water.
Spectral bands refer to specific ranges of wavelengths within the electromagnetic spectrum where light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation can be analyzed or measured. These bands are utilized in various fields, including remote sensing, telecommunications, astronomy, and more.
Spectral Energy Distribution (SED) is a representation of the energy emitted by an astronomical object, such as a star, galaxy, or any other celestial body, as a function of frequency or wavelength. It provides a comprehensive overview of the object's electromagnetic radiation across a range of wavelengths, from radio waves to gamma rays. The SED is typically plotted with frequency (or wavelength) on the x-axis and the energy flux (or intensity) on the y-axis.
A spectral line is a dark or bright line in a spectrum, representing the absorption or emission of light at specific wavelengths by atoms or molecules. Spectral lines occur when electrons in an atom or molecule transition between energy levels; they either absorb or emit photons with wavelengths that correspond to the energy difference between those levels.
Spectral line ratios refer to the comparison of the strengths (or intensities) of different spectral lines that emerge from a source, often as a result of atomic or molecular transitions. These ratios provide valuable information about the physical conditions in the emitting region, such as temperature, density, chemical composition, and excitation mechanisms.
A spectral line shape refers to the profile or distribution of intensity (or another measurable quantity) of light or other electromagnetic radiation as a function of frequency (or wavelength) around a specific transition frequency associated with an atomic or molecular transition. The shape of the spectral line can provide significant information about the physical conditions surrounding the emitting or absorbing species, as well as the processes that produce the radiation.
Spectral purity refers to the quality and fidelity of a signal's frequency components, particularly in the context of audio, telecommunications, and radio frequency technologies. It expresses how closely the spectral content of a signal resembles that of an ideal or pure signal, often associated with the desired frequency being transmitted or processed.
Spectral resolution refers to the ability of an instrument to distinguish between different wavelengths or frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. It is a critical parameter in various fields, including spectroscopy, astronomy, and remote sensing, as it determines how finely a spectrum can be resolved. Spectral resolution is commonly defined in terms of the wavelength (or frequency) at which a spectrum can be divided into distinct components.
A **spectral signature** refers to the unique pattern of reflectance or emittance of electromagnetic radiation (light) from an object or material across different wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. Each material has a distinct spectral signature that can be used to identify and differentiate it from other materials. ### Key Points about Spectral Signatures: 1. **Electromagnetic Spectrum**: Spectral signatures are typically measured across various wavelengths, which may include ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, and microwave ranges.
Spectrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation. It involves the use of various spectroscopic techniques to analyze the composition, structure, and properties of substances based on their absorption, emission, or scattering of light.
Spectroelectrochemistry is an interdisciplinary field that combines electrochemistry and spectroscopy to study the properties and behaviors of chemical species at electrochemical interfaces. It involves the simultaneous application of electrochemical techniques and spectroscopic methods to obtain detailed information about the electronic, molecular, and ionic states of species involved in redox processes.
A spectrohelioscope is a specialized astronomical instrument used to observe the Sun in different wavelengths of light, allowing scientists to study its surface and atmospheric phenomena in detail. The term itself combines "spectrum" (referring to the range of wavelengths of light) and "helioscope" (a device for observing the Sun). Spectrohelioscopes work by dispersing light from the Sun to separate it into its constituent colors, or spectra.
Spectrophotometry is an analytical method used to measure the intensity of light absorbed by a sample at specific wavelengths. This technique is based on the principle that substances absorb light at characteristic wavelengths, and the amount of light absorbed can be related to the concentration of the substance in the sample according to Beer-Lambert's Law. ### Key Concepts: 1. **Light Absorption**: When light passes through a sample, certain wavelengths are absorbed while others may be transmitted or reflected.
A spectroradiometer is an analytical instrument used to measure the intensity of light at different wavelengths across the electromagnetic spectrum. It combines the functions of a spectrometer and a radiometer, allowing for the characterization of both the spectral and radiant properties of light sources.
Spectroscopic notation is a way to represent the electronic configuration of atoms and ions in a concise manner, using specific symbols to denote the energy levels, subshells, and the number of electrons in each subshell. It is particularly useful for describing the quantum states of electrons in atoms, which is essential for understanding chemical behavior and spectral lines.
The Stark effect is the phenomenon in which the energy levels of atoms and molecules are shifted and split in the presence of an external electric field. This effect is named after the German physicist Johann Stark, who discovered it in 1913. When an external electric field is applied, it interacts with the electric dipole moments of the atoms or molecules.
Stark spectroscopy is a technique used to investigate the interactions between electric fields and atomic or molecular systems. It relies on the Stark effect, which describes the phenomenon where an external electric field causes a shift and splitting of energy levels in atoms or molecules. This effect is named after Johannes Stark, who discovered it in 1913. In Stark spectroscopy, an external electric field is applied while measuring the absorption or emission spectra of a sample.
Stationary-wave Integrated Fourier-transform Spectrometry (SWIFT) is a sophisticated spectroscopic technique developed to analyze the spectral properties of light, particularly in measuring absorption and emission spectra. This method combines principles of both stationary wave phenomena and Fourier-transform techniques to enhance the sensitivity and resolution of spectral measurements. ### Key Concepts: 1. **Stationary Waves**: In the context of optics, stationary waves refer to wave patterns that remain fixed in space due to the interference of two waves traveling in opposite directions.
Stereoscopic spectroscopy is a technique that combines principles of spectroscopy with stereoscopic imaging to analyze and visualize the spectral characteristics of samples in three dimensions. This method allows researchers to obtain detailed information about the spatial distribution and chemical composition of materials. In traditional spectroscopy, light is used to study the interaction of different materials with electromagnetic radiation, often providing information about their molecular or atomic structure.
Surface core level shift (SCLS) refers to the phenomenon observed in surface-sensitive spectroscopic techniques, such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), where the binding energy of core-level electrons in atoms located at or near the surface of a material differs from that of the same atoms in the bulk of the material.
Surface differential reflectivity (often abbreviated as ZDR) is a radar measurement used primarily in meteorology to characterize precipitation and its properties. It is derived from the difference in the reflectivity of horizontally and vertically polarized radar waves. This measurement helps distinguish between different types of hydrometeors, such as rain, snow, hail, and even the presence of non-meteorological targets (like birds or insects).
Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) is an optical technique used to measure the binding interactions between biomolecules in real time and without the need for labeling. It exploits the unique properties of surface plasmons, which are coherent oscillations of free electrons at the surface of a conductor, typically at the interface between a metal (usually gold or silver) and a dielectric medium (often water or air).
TNP-ATP, or 2,3,4-trinitrophenyl-ATP, is a chemical compound that is an analog of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) with a trinitrophenyl (TNP) group attached to the adenine portion of the molecule. TNP-ATP is often used in biochemical research as a fluorescent probe to study ATP-binding proteins and to investigate ATP-mediated processes in biological systems.
The TanabeâSugano diagram is a graphical representation used in the field of coordination chemistry and solid-state chemistry to illustrate the energy levels of electronic states in transition metal complexes. It is particularly useful for understanding the effects of ligand field splitting on the d-orbitals of transition metal ions as they interact with ligands.
Terahertz (THz) spectroscopy and technology are fields that study electromagnetic radiation in the terahertz frequency range, typically defined as frequencies from 0.1 THz to 10 THz (or wavelengths from about 3 mm to 30 ”m). This region lies between the microwave and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum and has gained considerable interest for various scientific and technological applications.
Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) is a powerful analytical technique used to study materials in the terahertz (THz) frequency range, which generally spans from about 0.1 to 10 THz (or 0.1 to 10 THz = 0.1 to 10 x 10ÂčÂČ Hz). This method provides information about the electronic, vibrational, and rotational dynamics of both solid and liquid materials.
The Unscrambler is a software tool used for multivariate data analysis, often applied in fields like chemistry, food science, and quality control, among others. It is developed by CAMO Software and provides a range of statistical and graphical tools to analyze complex data sets. Users can perform tasks like principal component analysis (PCA), partial least squares regression (PLS), and other chemometric methods.
Thermally Stimulated Current Spectroscopy (TSC or TSCs) is a technique used to investigate the electrical properties of materials, particularly in the field of solid-state physics, materials science, and semiconductor research. This method is particularly useful for studying traps, defects, and charge carrier dynamics within insulators, semiconductors, and polymers. ### Basic Principles: 1. **Sample Preparation**: A sample, often a dielectric material or semiconductor, is subjected to a temperature-dependent electrical measurement.
Time-domain diffuse optics is a technique used primarily in biomedical imaging and material characterization that employs light to probe tissues or other scattering media. It is based on the principles of optics and utilizes the time-dependent behavior of light as it interacts with a medium that diffuses light. ### Key Concepts: 1. **Diffuse Optics**: This refers to the study of how light propagates through scattering media, such as biological tissues.
"Time of flight" (ToF) typically refers to the time it takes for an object, particle, or signal to travel from one point to another. It is commonly used in various scientific and engineering applications, including: 1. **Physics**: In physics, time of flight can describe the time it takes for a projectile to travel through the air, which can depend on factors like initial velocity, launch angle, and gravitational acceleration.
Time-resolved microwave conductivity (TRMC) is a technique used to investigate the dynamics of charge carriers in materials, particularly in semiconductors and organic materials. This method combines microwave spectroscopy with time-resolved techniques to provide detailed information about the conductivity changes in a material following the excitation of charge carriers, such as electrons and holes. ### Basic Principles 1.
A transmissometer is an instrument used to measure the transmission of light through a medium, often employed in various fields such as meteorology, environmental monitoring, and telecommunications. It quantifies how much light is able to pass through a medium, which can be air, water, or other substances, and is particularly useful for assessing visibility conditions. In meteorology, for instance, transmissometers are commonly used to measure atmospheric visibility, which can be affected by factors like fog, rain, dust, and pollution.
Triplet-triplet annihilation (TTA) is a photophysical process that occurs in molecular systems, particularly those involving organic molecules or organic semiconductors. This phenomenon involves the interaction of two triplet excited states, leading to a variety of interesting outcomes, typically in the context of energy transfer and photon generation. ### Key Concepts: 1. **Triplet States**: Molecules can be excited to higher energy levels upon absorption of photons.
A triplet state is a specific type of quantum state that arises in the context of molecular and atomic systems, particularly in the study of excited states of molecules and the behavior of electrons. It is characterized by the total spin quantum number \( S = 1 \), which means that there are three possible projections of the spin angular momentum, referred to as \( m_S = +1, 0, \) and \( -1 \).
Two-dimensional correlation analysis is a statistical technique used to examine the relationship between two variables in a two-dimensional space. It allows researchers to analyze how changes in one variable correspond to changes in another variable and to assess the strength and direction of their relationship. This type of analysis is particularly useful in fields such as economics, psychology, biology, and many others where two variables are often interdependent.
UV-Vis absorption spectroelectrochemistry is a powerful analytical technique that combines ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) absorption spectroscopy with electrochemistry. This method allows researchers to study the electronic properties and behaviors of chemical species in solution as a function of their oxidation state, charge, or potential applied during electrochemical experiments. ### Key Components: 1. **UV-Vis Absorption Spectroscopy**: - UV-Vis spectroscopy measures the absorption of ultraviolet and visible light by a sample.
Ultrasound attenuation spectroscopy is a technique used to measure the attenuation (loss of intensity) of ultrasound waves as they pass through a material. The primary principle behind this method is that different materials and their physical properties will affect how ultrasound waves propagate, including how they lose energy through scattering and absorption.
Ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used to measure the absorbance of ultraviolet and visible light by a substance. When applied to stereoisomers, it can help distinguish between different conformations and configurations of molecules that have the same molecular formula but differ in the spatial arrangement of their atoms. ### Key Concepts: 1. **Stereoisomers**: These are compounds that have the same molecular formula and connectivity of atoms but different spatial arrangements.
Vapochromism is a phenomenon where certain materials change color in response to exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or various vapors. This change in color is typically due to the interaction of the vapors with the chemical structure of the material, which can involve changes in electron configuration or molecular interactions. Vapochromic materials can include certain dyes, polymers, and coordination complexes that exhibit this behavior.
Vibrational analysis with scanning probe microscopy (SPM) refers to a set of techniques that combine the capabilities of scanning probe microscopy (such as atomic force microscopy, or AFM, and scanning tunneling microscopy, or STM) with vibrational spectroscopy techniques to study the vibrational modes and properties of materials at the nanoscale.
Vibronic spectroscopy is a technique that combines vibrational and electronic spectroscopies to study the interactions between the electronic and vibrational states of molecules. The term "vibronic" itself is derived from the combination of "vibrational" and "electronic," indicating that it addresses both aspects simultaneously.
Video spectroscopy is an advanced technique that combines video imaging with spectroscopic analysis to study the properties of materials and analyze dynamic processes in real time. It typically involves capturing video footage of a sample while simultaneously collecting spectral information about the light interacting with the sample. The key components of video spectroscopy include: 1. **Imaging**: High-speed cameras or video cameras capture the visual aspects of the sample, allowing for the observation of dynamic changes, movements, or reactions over time.
A Virtually Imaged Phased Array (VIPA) is an advanced optical imaging technique that enhances the capabilities of traditional phased array systems. VIPA technology is primarily used in applications like spectroscopy, imaging, and sensing, where high resolution and rapid data acquisition are essential. ### Key Features of VIPA: 1. **Optical Interference and Imaging**: VIPA utilizes the principle of optical interference to generate multiple virtual images of an object.
The William F. Meggers Award in Spectroscopy is a prestigious award given by the Society for Applied Spectroscopy (SAS) to recognize outstanding achievements in the field of spectroscopy. Named in honor of William F. Meggers, a prominent figure in the field who made significant contributions to spectroscopic techniques, the award is intended to honor individuals who have made significant advancements and innovations in spectroscopy, whether in theory, instrumentation, or application.
The "Wolf effect" is not a widely recognized term in scientific literature. However, it is often referenced in discussions related to ecology, behavior, or economics, typically in the context of predator-prey relationships or social behavior. One potential interpretation relates to ecological studies discussing how the presence of apex predators, like wolves, can impact the behavior of prey species and entire ecosystems.
The Zeeman effect is a phenomenon in physics observed when the spectral lines of atoms are split into multiple components in the presence of a magnetic field. This splitting results from the interaction between the magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moment associated with the angular momentum of electrons within an atom. When an atom is placed in a magnetic field, the degeneracy of energy levels associated with electronic states is lifted due to the different orientations of the magnetic moments relative to the field direction.
Zeeman-Doppler imaging is a technique used in astrophysics and stellar spectroscopy to study the magnetic fields and surface features of stars. This method combines two key effects: the Zeeman effect and the Doppler effect. 1. **Zeeman Effect**: This phenomenon occurs when the presence of a magnetic field splits the spectral lines of elements in a star's atmosphere into multiple components. The degree of splitting provides information about the strength and orientation of the magnetic field.